New Articles

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  How Many Teeth Does a Shark Have? The number of teeth a shark has can vary significantly depending on the species, but some species may go through as many as 50,000 teeth in their lifetime. Unlike humans, who have a limited number of teeth, sharks have a continuous tooth replacement system. Some sharks have several rows of teeth,...
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  Why Is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier Guarded? The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, is a monumental grave that honors unidentified military service members who sacrificed their lives in wartime. The tomb was installed in 1921 and originally held the remains of one unidentified soldier from World...
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  Is Diamond the Hardest Substance on Earth? Yes, diamond is the hardest naturally occurring substance on Earth. It is a 10 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness, indicating the material’s supreme resistance to being scratched. Diamond’s hardness is a result of its atomic structure, where each carbon atom (diamond is made entirely of carbon)...
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  Why Is Connecticut Called the Constitution State? The nickname Constitution State refers to Connecticut’s adoption of the Fundamental Orders in 1638, a pioneering framework for self-governance. Created by settlers in towns along the Connecticut River, the orders outlined a system in which magistrates were elected and laws were made by an elected...
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  U.S.-Dakota War of 1862 U.S.-Dakota War of 1862, a conflict on the Minnesota frontier that broke out in August 1862. It was a six-week campaign waged by Dakota warriors after the United States government violated multiple treaties and failed to deliver money that Dakota people were depending on to buy food from traders....
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  yield strength Yield strength, minimum stress at which a solid will undergo permanent deformation or plastic flow without a significant increase in the load or external force the solid is subjected to. The point of yield strength marks the transition of the solid from elastic to plastic behavior. Below the yield...
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  Hema Malini Hema Malini is an Indian actress, bharatanatyam dancer, director, and politician recognized for her work in Bollywood and contributions to public life as a member of parliament. Popularly called “Dream Girl,”Hema Malini rose to prominence in the 1970s and has appeared in more than 150 films,...
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  Why Are Mice Used in Medical Research? Mice are used in medical research primarily because their genetic makeup is very similar to that of humans, making them excellent models for studying human diseases. Because of this biological similarity, humans and mice experience many of the same illnesses, allowing researchers to study the...
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  Why Does Ice Float on Water? Ice floats on water because it is less dense than its liquid form. In the liquid state, most water molecules are associated in a polymeric structure—that is, chains of molecules linked by weak hydrogen bonds. As water freezes, these molecules become more rigidly organized, forming an open,...
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  BTS Members Have Completed Mandatory National Service ProCon Debate: Should the United States Enact Mandatory National Service? ProCon Issue in the News: Suga, a member of the K-pop group BTS, was discharged from mandatory national military service on June 21, 2025. He was the last of the seven BTS members to complete his national service in South...
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  Riot Grrrl Movement In the early 1990s Kathleen Hanna, lead singer of the punk rock group Bikini Kill, made it a practice to begin gigs with the command, “Girls to the front!” Hanna’s experience was that women in the punk scene were often pushed aside by male fans and musicians. In her 2024 memoir, Rebel Girl: My Life...
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  List of Highest-Grossing Indian Films Immense in scope, the rich cinematic landscape of India is as diverse as its population of more than a billion souls, for whom movies have long been a cultural touchstone. While the serious cinema of such filmmakers as Satyajit Ray and Mrinal Sen has attracted critical admiration, it is the...
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  Stede Bonnet Stede Bonnet was a British aristocrat who left his family, land, and fortune behind to pursue a life of piracy. Alongside Edward Teach—the pirate known as Blackbeard—Bonnet orchestrated a blockade of Charleston, South Carolina, in 1718. Thomas Bonnet, Stede Bonnet’s grandfather, was one of the...
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  Self-portrait Self-portrait, painting by Swedish Arts and Crafts artist Carl Larsson, created in 1906. This painting, also known as Self-recognition and Self-examination, is one of several self-depictions by Larsson.. Larsson, who lived from 1853 to 1919, became a national institution in his homeland. Larsson’s...
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  Self-Portrait Self-Portrait, masterful painting created by Neoclassical Swiss-born artist Angelica Kauffmann in 1787. In this portrait she depicted herself in classical dress. Kauffmann, who was regarded as a child prodigy, enjoyed greater status than was usual for 18th-century female artists. Known for her...
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  Self-Portrait Self-Portrait, early painting by British genre artist Sir David Wilkie, created in about 1804. Painted when he was just 20 years old, this portrait represents a defining moment in the artist’s life: Wilkie was about to leave his native Scotland for England. Having studied in Edinburgh, Wilkie left...
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  In God we trust In God we trust, official motto of the United States, adopted in 1956, and placed on all U.S. currency beginning in 1957. The phrase replaced “E pluribus unum” (Latin: “Out of many, one”), which had been the country’s unofficial motto since the 1780s. The phrase has its origin story in the American...
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  Nine Incredible Jumping Spiders Get ready to leap into the dazzling world of jumping spiders! The jumping spider family, Salticidae, is the largest and most diverse of all spider families, boasting more than 5,000 described species found in nearly every terrestrial habitat on Earth. These pint-sized arachnids are not only...
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  National Stock Exchange of India The National Stock Exchange of India (NSE), established in 1992, is India’s leading stock exchange and one of the world’s largest by market capitalization. As of mid-2025, the NSE’s market cap stood at about $5.3 trillion. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), which oversees the NSE,...
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  Why Do We Need Sleep? We need to sleep, because it plays an important role in maintaining our overall health and well-being. Sleep helps the body repair tissues and grow. During sleep, hormone levels change and muscles relax, allowing tissues to heal and the body to build muscle and synthesize proteins that support...
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  Why Are so Many Companies Incorporated in Delaware? Delaware is home to more than half of all Fortune 500 companies, but it is not because of tax breaks or proximity to financial hubs. The state has built a reputation over the decades as the most business-friendly legal environment in the United States. At the center of this reputation is the...
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  Curtis Yarvin Curtis Yarvin is an American political theorist who has called for democracy to be replaced by a monarchy headed by a CEO or dictator. Beginning as a fringe figure with a mostly online following, he has become an oft-cited thinker by the new right; Yarvin was quoted several times by J.D. Vance...
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  Bowen Yang Bowen Yang is a Chinese American comedian, actor, podcaster, and writer who first gained wide recognition as a featured player—a lower-tier cast member—on the sketch comedy television show Saturday Night Live (SNL; 1975– ) in 2019. Known for his witty, incisive, and absurd character portrayals,...
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  How Was Niagara Falls Formed? Niagara Falls was formed over 12,000 years ago as a result of the melting ice from the retreating glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin Glacial Stage, but the rocks that make up the formation date back to more than 400 hundred million years ago. The melting of the Laurentide Ice Sheet released a...
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  What Do Kangaroos Eat? Kangaroos are herbivores, which means they eat only plant-based foods. Their diet mainly includes grass and other types of vegetation. Larger species, such as red and gray kangaroos, are grazers. They feed mostly on grass, much like cattle and sheep, which eat large amounts of grass in open areas....
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  Why Are People Afraid of Spiders? People are often afraid of spiders, unsettled by the animals’ many legs and eyes, their sometimes rapid and unpredictable movements, and, of course, the fear of venomous bites. Cultural portrayals of spiders as dangerous or creepy certainly do not help put folks at ease. It has been suggested that...
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  Why Is Texas Called the Lone Star State? Texas is called the Lone Star State because of its historical association with the single star on its flag. This star symbolizes the unity and solidarity of the people of Texas under “God, state, and country.” The term “Lone Star” is deeply rooted in Texas’s history, particularly in its fight for...
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  List of the Deadliest Airplane Disasters Although air travel is the safest mode of transportation, when a large passenger plane does crash or meet with some other catastrophe, the death toll is often in the hundreds. This list features the 25 deadliest airplane disasters in the world and includes the cause or causes of each...
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  Where Do the Great Smoky Mountains Get Their Name? The Cherokee Nation, the original inhabitants of the western segment of the high Appalachian Mountains in the southeastern United States, called the region Shaconage. The translation, “place of the blue smoke,” referred to the bluish haze that frequently blankets the area. This haze is not smoke...
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  What Do Ducks Eat? Ducks are omnivorous birds with a varied diet that includes aquatic plants, insects, seeds, and sometimes even small animals. Their food choices depend on their habitat, the season, and their species. Most ducks feed in or near water. Dabbling ducks, such as mallards, are often seen tipping forward...
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  List of the Largest Single-Day Protests in the United States The First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution guarantees citizens the rights to free speech and peaceful assembly—freedoms that have empowered generations of Americans to take to the streets to speak out against injustice, demand change, and advocate for civil rights. The following graphic and table...
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  Kirtland’s warbler Kirtland’s warbler, (Setophaga kirtlandii), energetic migratory songbird of the wood warbler family whose summer range is limited to Michigan, Wisconsin, and Ontario, and whose winter range includes the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Bahamas, and Cuba. The Kirtland’s warbler is one of North...
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  Pat Brown Pat Brown was the two-term Democratic governor of California from 1959 to 1967, who helped oversee massive growth of the state by investing infrastructure and public education. Brown had the distinction of running against two future Republican presidents, winning reelection against Richard Nixon in...
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  What Is the Difference Between Comets and Asteroids? Comets and asteroids differ primarily in their composition, origin, and orbits within the solar system. Comets are composed largely of volatile ices, such as water, carbon dioxide, and ammonia, mixed with dust particles. When they approach the Sun, these ices sublimate, creating a bright outflowing...
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  A guide to 55-plus communities and other senior living options As you get into your 50s, 60s, and 70s, your priorities may shift. Maybe your children have grown and flown, or you’ve simply moved past the years of driving to practices and checking homework. You might be working less, easing into retirement, or just rethinking how you spend your time. Your home...
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  How to use AI for retirement and financial planning Planning for the future means making a lot of assumptions: how much you’ll earn, how long you’ll work, and what your expenses might look like in retirement. Even with clear goals, it can be hard to know where to begin. Tools that use artificial intelligence (AI) can bring some structure to the...
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  E Pluribus Unum “E pluribus unum” is a Latin phrase translated into English as “Out of many, one.” The phrase was the original unofficial motto of the United States and is present on the country’s seal. It is also printed on most U.S. coinage. The phrase, in an American context, refers to the federalist system...
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  The energy market: Oil, solar, and everything in between The energy market powers homes, businesses, and entire economies, offering investors a way to invest in the resources the world depends on. Whether you’re trading crude oil, buying utility stocks, or betting on solar and wind, energy is one of the most dynamic and far-reaching sectors investors can...
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  Why Are Rip Currents Dangerous? Rip currents are dangerous primarily because they are often more powerful than they initially seem and move quickly, which can catch even experienced swimmers off guard and pull them away from shore. Such currents, which occur in a direction approximately perpendicular to the shoreline, are narrow,...
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  New Orleans lynching of 1891 New Orleans lynching of 1891, the largest mass lynching of Italian Americans to take place in the United States. The occurrence happened on March 14, 1891, at Orleans Parish Prison in New Orleans. Following the acquittal and mistrial of several Italian immigrants accused of murdering New Orleans...
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  Swan Lake Swan Lake, ballet composed in 1876 by Russian composer Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Swan Lake was revolutionary in its musical approach and was the first in Tchaikovsky’s trilogy of ballets (the other two were Sleeping Beauty and The Nutcracker). Tchaikovsky’s score for Swan Lake was based on a short...
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  Alex Jones Alex Jones is an American political commentator and media entrepreneur. His website Infowars, which he launched in 1999, has been described as one of the largest platforms in alternative media and a major force in introducing the American public to conspiracy theories, misinformation and...
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  Pietà Pietà, a monumental marble sculpture by Renaissance artist Michelangelo depicting Mary cradling the body of Jesus after he has been removed from the cross. The work was commissioned by a French Cardinal, Jean de Bilhères Lagraulas, for his funerary monument in Old St. Peter’s Basilica (razed in the...
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  dandy Dandy, term, dating to England in the late 18th century, that describes a man who pays fastidious attention to his appearance and social position. German philosopher Roman Meinhold described dandies in his book Fashion Myths: A Cultural Critique (2013; trans. John Irons) as “masters of the...
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  Why Are Robin Eggs Blue? Robin eggs are blue due to a fascinating evolutionary adaptation that may help protect them from sun exposure. The blue pigmentation of robin eggs is primarily due to a pigment called biliverdin. This pigment moves through the robin’s bloodstream and is deposited on the eggshell as the mother robin...
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  Why Is the U.S. Flag Red, White, and Blue? The red, white, and blue used in the U.S. flag are deeply linked to the country’s historical ties with Britain. The colors mirror those used in the British Union Jack, reflecting the colonial heritage of the United States. The nation’s earliest flags, used during the American Revolution,...
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  How Was Venice Built on Water? The city of Venice, spread across an archipelago in the crescent-shaped Laguna Veneta (Venice Lagoon), rests on a vast number of densely packed upright wooden piles submerged in the lagoon’s waters and driven deep into the soft mud and clay below. This remarkable feat of engineering has provided...
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  romance novel Romance novel, a fiction book that focuses on the themes of love and romantic relationships. More specifically, the Romance Writers of America (RWA) defines a romance novel as a fictional narrative that contains two particular elements: Best-selling contemporary romance novelists include Danielle...
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  How Long Does It Take to Fly Around the World? In theory commercial passenger aircraft, which have a cruising speed of 575–600 mph (925–965 km/h), could fly nonstop around the world in about 42 hours. In practice, nonstop flights around the world are rare and challenging because of the need for specialized aircraft that can carry enough fuel...
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  Why Do Skunks Spray? Skunks spray as a highly effective defense mechanism to deter predators and threats. They are equipped with two anal scent glands that are highly specialized and produce a potent, noxious liquid. Each scent gland has a nipple associated with it, which allows the skunk to aim the spray with...
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  Why Is Oklahoma Called the Sooner State? Oklahoma earned its “Sooner State” nickname from settlers who jumped the gun—literally—during the Land Rush of 1889. At noon on April 22, a cavalry bugle signaled the official start of the run for 3,100 square miles of land in what had been Indian Territory. But some settlers slipped in early to...
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  Why Is Philadelphia Called the City of Brotherly Love? Philadelphia is called the “City of Brotherly Love” because its name is derived from the Greek words “philia,” meaning love, and “adelphos,” meaning brother. The name reflects the ideals of its founder, the Quaker leader William Penn. He founded Philadelphia in 1681 with a vision of creating a...
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  Why Do We Have Seasons? Seasons occur due to the tilt of Earth’s axis, which is approximately 23.5°. This tilt causes Earth’s two hemispheres to receive varying amounts of solar energy throughout the year. The Earth’s distance from the Sun, even though it changes slightly over a year, is not a factor in the change of...
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  How Long Can Whales Hold Their Breath? Whales can hold their breath for varying durations depending on the species, with some capable of staying submerged for more than an hour. Sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) are among the most impressive breath-holders in the whale world. These deep-diving giants can remain underwater for about...
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  Studio Museum Studio Museum, a cultural institution in Harlem, New York City, that promotes and showcases work by artists of African descent. Since its opening in 1968 the museum has offered residencies, exhibitions, and events that have helped launch the careers of leading American artists, curators, and...
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  How Was Germany Divided After World War II? Germany was divided into four occupation zones in 1945 after Nazi Germany’s unconditional surrender in World War II. Each zone was controlled by one of the Allied powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union. The American, British, and French zones formed the western...
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  Why Is New Jersey Known as the Garden State? New Jersey became known as the Garden State in the 18th century because of its fertile land and agricultural productivity. Although modern New Jersey is one of the most urbanized and densely populated states in the United States, agriculture remains a vital part of the economy and culture. Indeed,...
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  Why Is Seattle Called the Emerald City? Seattle is called the Emerald City because of its abundant parks and greenbelts, which give it a vibrant, lush appearance year-round. In addition to ample vegetation within the city itself, Seattle is surrounded by areas of great natural beauty, including the densely forested Olympic Peninsula and...
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  What Do Squirrels Eat? Squirrels’ diets vary based on their species and habitat. The most commonly recognized squirrel, the bushy-tailed tree squirrel, has a diet that primarily consists of nuts and fruits. Squirrels are equipped with strong, chisel-like incisors and powerful jaws, which are essential for gnawing open...
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  What Is the Wingspan of an Eagle? The wingspan of an eagle varies significantly depending on the species. It may be less than 1 meter (3.28 feet) in some species and greater than 2.40 meters (7.87 feet) in others. The smallest known eagle species in the world, the Great Nicobar serpent eagle (Spilornis klossi), has a wingspan of...
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  Nationalism vs. Patriotism: What’s the Difference? Nationalism and patriotism, while often used interchangeably, have distinct origins, meanings, and implications. Patriotism is a feeling of attachment and commitment to a country, nation, or political community, and its conception has roots tracing back to Greek and Roman antiquity. It is...
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  How Was Pablo Escobar Caught? Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar, leader of the Medellín cartel, surrendered in June 1991 and was subsequently imprisoned following an extensive manhunt and parallel negotiations with the Colombian government about his surrender. The massive manhunt by the government—reportedly aided by U.S....
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  Parsley Massacre Parsley Massacre, state-sponsored mass killing that occurred in the Dominican Republic in early October 1937. Acting on the orders of the Dominican Republic’s dictator, Rafael Trujillo, Dominican soldiers targeted Haitian residents—primarily those living in settlement areas near the border between...
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  Vlad II Dracul Vlad II Dracul was voivode (prince or military governor) of Walachia, a region in what is now Romania, from 1436 to 1442 and from 1443 to 1447. He lived during a tumultuous period of transition in eastern Europe, when the Byzantine Empire was in decline and the Ottoman Turks were advancing into the...
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  Why Are Hippos Dangerous? Hippos are dangerous primarily because of their territorial nature especially when it comes to their aquatic habitats. They are often seen basking on riverbanks or submerged in water, and they fiercely protect these areas from intruders. When humans or other animals encroach on their territory,...
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  Why Are Polar Bears White? Polar bear fur is actually colorless but appears white because of the way it interacts with light. Each hair shaft is hollow and transparent, allowing it to scatter and reflect sunlight, much like ice. This optical effect gives the bear its white—or sometimes yellowish—appearance, which serves as...
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  Why Are Fish High in Mercury? Fish can have high levels of mercury in their tissues owing to bioaccumulation, in which mercury that is released into water is absorbed by smaller organisms that ultimately are consumed by fish. Mercury enters the environment through natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions and the weathering...
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  Why Is Finland the Happiest Country in the World? Finland is often cited as the happiest country in the world because it has topped the World Happiness Report for several years in a row since 2018. The World Happiness Report is an annual publication that ranks global well-being using data collected from more than 140 countries. The data measures...
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  French cuisine French cuisine, the traditional meals and cooking techniques developed over centuries in France. Although recipes and techniques vary according to region and season, French cuisine is known for its rich flavors, use of high-quality native ingredients, and emphasis on elegant presentations. Meals...
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  How Long Does It Take for Rigor Mortis to Set In? Rigor mortis typically sets in about two to six hours after death, beginning with the smaller muscles of the body, such as those in the hands and face. The process of muscle stiffening, which is the primary characteristic of rigor mortis, occurs because following the cessation of breathing, oxygen...
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  “No Kings” protests “No Kings” protests, rallies organized to protest the second presidency of U.S. Pres. Donald Trump that occurred on his birthday, June 14, 2025, during which time a military parade occurred in Washington, D.C. The protests, which were organized across about 2,100 sites in the U.S., were called “No...
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  What’s the Difference Between Cement and Concrete? The words cement and concrete are often used interchangeably, but they’re not the same thing. Cement is a fine powder that forms a hard substance when mixed with water. It’s made by heating a blend of limestone and clay, then grinding it down. On its own, cement can be used in grout or combined...
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  Wendy Red Star Wendy Red Star is a photographer, sculptor, textile maker, and painter. An enrolled member of the Apsáalooke (Crow) tribe, Red Star has used her eclectic practice to bring greater attention to Apsáalooke history and culture. She is especially interested in the predominant role played by women in...
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  Reza Pahlavi Reza Pahlavi is the crown prince of Iran and the eldest son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the shah who was ousted in the country’s 1979 revolution. He has spent most of his adult life in exile in the Washington, D.C., area, where he has advocated for regime change and a more secular government for...
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  Coral Castle Coral Castle, tourist attraction located in Homestead, Florida, featuring massive stone carvings created by Edward Leedskalnin between 1923 and 1951 as a tribute to his fiancée, who reportedly ended their engagement the day before their wedding. Coral Castle was added to the National Register of...
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  Why Do Apes Live in Groups? All apes, except for orangutans, live in groups. This arrangement gives them advantages when it comes to raising young, protection, and overall survival. Compared to other animals, apes take a long time to grow into adults. An extended time with adults and peers enables them to learn crucial...
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  Betty Davis Betty Davis was an American singer-songwriter, model, and pioneer of feminist funk, known for her fierce independence, bold fashion, and unapologetically sexual lyrics that pushed the boundaries of music and gender norms in the 1970s. Davis produced most of her own albums, wrote her own music, and...
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  New York Post New York Post, American tabloid newspaper based in New York City. It is known for its conservative editorial positions, its salacious gossip column known as Page Six, and its often outlandish headlines. Founded by Alexander Hamilton in 1801, it has been run by Rupert Murdoch and his family since...
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  John Waters John Waters is an American film director, producer, and screenwriter who is known for his boundary-pushing movies that repulsed many critics and viewers when he first came on the scene in the late 1960s but that are now seen as transgressive cult classics. His films include Pink Flamingos (1972),...
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  Federal Prisoner Transferred to Oklahoma for State Execution ProCon Debate: Should the Death Penalty Be Legal? ProCon Issue in the News: John Fitzgerald Hanson (also called George John Hanson) was executed by lethal injection on June 12, 2025, at the Oklahoma State Penitentiary in McAlester. In 2001 Hanson was convicted and sentenced to death by the state of...
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  Why Do Dogs Have Wet Noses? Dogs have wet noses mainly to enhance their sense of smell. The moisture on the nose traps scent particles in the air, making it easier to detect and process smells. A dog’s ability to detect scents plays a crucial role in how they explore and understand its surroundings. A dog’s nose is far more...
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  How Do Fish Reproduce? Fish reproduction is a fascinating process that varies significantly across different species. Most bony fishes (belonging to the superclass Osteichthyes) are oviparous (egg-laying) and show external fertilization. They produce a large number of small eggs that are often scattered in the water,...
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  How Much Does a Hippopotamus Weigh? A hippopotamus typically weighs up to 3,200 kg (3.5 tons). As the second-largest land mammal after the elephant, hippos are among the heaviest terrestrial animals. Males generally measure about 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) long and stand 1.5 meters (5 feet) tall, with a weight range of 1,600–3,200 kg...
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  How Tall Was T. rex? If the Tyrannosaurus rex (T. rex)—the largest member of a group of theropod dinosaurs called tyrannosaurs—had stood upright, it would have been more than 6.5 meters (21 feet) tall. This would be about a meter higher than an adult male giraffe, which stands at about 5.5 meters (18 feet) tall....
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  YRF Spy Universe YRF Spy Universe, Bollywood film franchise in which spy thrillers with distinct storylines occupy a shared cinematic universe. The franchise is produced by and named for the Yash Raj Films (YRF) studio and consists of separate but interconnected films or series of films centering on different...
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  Why Do Small Dogs Live Longer? Although a larger size normally indicates greater longevity among most mammals, dogs tend to follow a different pattern. Small dogs usually live longer than their larger counterparts due to a combination of genetic, physiological, and evolutionary factors. Genetic makeup plays a significant role in...
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  How Was the Eiffel Tower Built? The Eiffel Tower was constructed using advanced engineering techniques and a small labor force over a period of about two years from 1887 to 1889. Gustave Eiffel, a noted bridge engineer, designed the tower using his extensive knowledge of metal arch and truss forms. The structure was primarily...
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  How Do Hand Warmers Work? Hand warmers work by utilizing an exothermic chemical reaction to generate heat, providing warmth to cold hands. Disposable hand warmers accomplish this through the use of iron powder, salt, and water. When exposed to oxygen in the air, iron undergoes oxidation. The reaction, which is facilitated...
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  list of spiders Spiders (order Araneae) are a group of arachnids that includes more than 50,000 species known to science. All spiders are predators, feeding almost entirely on other arthropods, especially insects. Some spiders are active hunters that chase and overpower their prey, while others weave silk snares,...
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  Jake Paul Jake Paul is an American boxer, influencer, and actor. A member of Generation Z, the first to come of age in a world of ubiquitous Internet and smartphone use, Paul rose to fame and notoriety in the mid-2010s by creating comedic, deliberately provocative videos for the social media platforms Vine...
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  Trend following: A time-tested strategy for riding market momentum Wall Street wisdom reminds us, through its various maxims, to stay on the right side of the market: The trend is your friend, don’t fight the tape, and buy the dip. All these sayings are predicated on the notion that when a market is trending—that is, moving in a general direction—your positions...
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  How to use AI for budgeting, saving, and managing your money Budgeting and looking for ways to trim expenses can feel like a chore, but using tools with artificial intelligence (AI) can make managing your money a little easier and help you make smarter decisions. Whether you’re trying to build a nest egg or just spend more wisely, these tools might help you...
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  mother-of-pearl Mother-of-pearl, hard organic substance forming the iridescent inner layer of several mollusks, as well as the outer layer of pearls produced by mollusks whose shells are lined with the substance. Known for its shiny multicolored luster, mother-of-pearl has been used for decorative purposes since...
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  cod fishery collapse of 1992 Cod fishery collapse of 1992, overfishing-induced crash of the Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) population in the western North Atlantic Ocean and its economic effects in eastern Canada, primarily Newfoundland and Labrador. The event was acknowledged officially on July 2, 1992, by Canadian government...
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  Why Is the Gobi Desert Called a Cold Desert? The Gobi Desert, spanning parts of northern China and southern Mongolia, is famously known as a “cold desert” due to its extreme climate. Unlike more familiar hot deserts, such as the Sahara, the Gobi experiences long, bitter winters with temperatures often plunging below −40 °C (–40 °F). Yet it...
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  How Do Water Towers Work? Commonly seen dotting the countryside and often visible from miles away, water towers—also called storage distribution tanks—serve key purposes in municipal water supply systems. Water towers provide essential equalizing pressure to a water supply system and store emergency water supply for times...
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  How Was the Panama Canal Built? The construction of the Panama Canal was a monumental feat that was accomplished through strategic engineering, international collaboration, and the overcoming of natural challenges. Initially, the French attempted to build a sea-level canal but faced setbacks, including disease and engineering...
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  Where Does the Golden Gate Bridge Get Its Name? The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco is named after the strait that it spans, called Golden Gate. The name was given to the strait by Captain John C. Frémont in 1846. He drew an analogy to the Golden Horn of the Bosporus in Turkey, envisioning the strait as a gateway for rich cargoes from Asia....
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  What Animal Has the Longest Life Span? The Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus) is the longest-lived vertebrate animal known to science. Radiocarbon dating of proteins in the shark’s eye-lens nuclei suggests that some individuals may be more than 500 years old. This extraordinary longevity is attributed to the species’...
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  Stable Diffusion Stable Diffusion, open-source generative artificial intelligence (AI) diffusion model that generates images, video, and animations from users’ text prompts. Developed by researchers at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Stable Diffusion was managed by the British company Stability AI...
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  Portrait of Mademoiselle Chanel Portrait created in 1923 by French avant-garde artist Marie Laurencin of fashion designer Coco Chanel. The painting, though stylized and languorous, nonetheless captures Chanel’s features. In the early 1920s Serge Diaghilev hired Laurencin to design sets for the Ballets Russes production of...
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  Portrait of Madame Récamier Portrait of Madame Récamier, unfinished portrait that was painted in 1800 and is widely regarded as among the best of the portraits created by French artist Jacques-Louis David. With its grace, simplicity, and economy, it is also regarded as one of the most successful examples of Neoclassical art....
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  How Do Horses Sleep? Horses sleep both standing up and lying down. Most of their sleeping time is spent standing, which is crucial for their survival because it enables them to quickly escape predators. Sleeping while standing is possible because horses have a stay apparatus, a system of tendons, ligaments, and muscles...
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  Portrait of Pope Innocent X Portrait of Pope Innocent X, oil portrait created by Spanish artist Diego Velázquez, the leading painter in the court of King Philip IV of Spain, most likely in 1650. It is lauded as being among the finest portraits ever painted. Velázquez focused on depicting the world around him, instead of...
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  Why Are Navy Beans Called Navy Beans? Navy beans—also known as Boston beans, haricots, pea beans, and (in Australia) Yankee beans—received their name because they became a staple food for the United States Navy in the second half of the 19th century. These small, white beans were a leading food for sailors due to their long shelf life...
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  How Long Did Dinosaurs Live? Dinosaurs roamed the Earth for an impressive span of about 165 to 180 million years. They first appeared about 245 million years ago during the beginning of the Middle Triassic Epoch. This was a time when the continents were joined together in a supercontinent known as Pangea. As the continents...
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  Timeline of the 1940s The 1940s was a decade of upheaval and transformation, shaped by global war, scientific breakthroughs, and shifting political power. The period opened with rising tensions in Europe and culminated in the early years of the Cold War. World War II dominated the first half of the decade, driving...
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  How Long Do Chicken Eggs Take to Hatch? Chicken eggs typically take about 21 days to hatch. This is the time it takes for a fertilized egg to develop into a chick ready to emerge. The process begins with the hen laying the egg, and if conditions are optimal, the embryo inside will start to develop. Temperature and humidity need to be...
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  Why Do Crickets Chirp At Night? Male crickets chirp primarily to attract mates and establish territory. Their musical chirping sounds are produced by rubbing a scraper on one forewing along a row of teeth on the opposite forewing, an act known as stridulation. Different songs serve different purposes, with many species having...
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  Alain Prost Alain Prost former French race car driver and motorsport executive. Prost competed in Formula One (F1) racing from 1980 to 1993, winning four championships. He won 51 races, a record at the time of his retirement. Nicknamed “the Professor” and “the Calculator” for his methodical approach to races,...
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  Why Do Cats Open Their Mouths After Smelling Something? Cats often open their mouths after smelling something because of a behavior known as the flehmen response. It’s a behavior seen in many mammals, where they open their mouths and curl back their lips after detecting an interesting smell. Cats rely heavily on chemical communication, and the flehmen...
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  Jack and the Beanstalk Jack and the Beanstalk, classic fairy tale about a boy, Jack, who climbs a towering beanstalk grown from magic beans and defeats the giant he meets at the top. The earliest printed version of the story was published in England in the early 18th century, and there have been many retellings with...
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  What Is the Largest Animal on Earth? The largest animal on Earth is the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus). It is also the largest animal to have ever existed. These marine giants can weigh approximately 150 metric tons and stretch over 30 meters (98 feet) in length. There are reports of blue whales reaching lengths of 33 meters and...
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  Why Do Birds Chirp at Night? Birds chirp at night for various reasons, primarily to communicate, mark territory, attract mates, warn other birds of potential predators, or signal the presence of food. For instance, owls hoot to establish and defend their territory, especially during breeding season, when they are more...
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  Why Do Cats Have Whiskers? Cats have whiskers primarily for tactile sensing, which is crucial for their survival and daily activities. Whiskers, or vibrissae, are specialized hairs that serve as touch receptors for cats. These stiff hairs, located on the face and at the back of the forelegs, play a vital role in a cat’s...
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  How Fast Do Hummingbirds Fly? Hummingbirds, those tiny marvels of the avian world, can reach speeds greater than 48 km per hour (30 miles per hour) during regular flight. However, during courtship displays, male hummingbirds have been known to dive at 88.5–96.5 km per hour (55–60 miles per hour) to attract a female’s attention....
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  mandatory sentence A legal penalty, usually consisting of imprisonment, that courts are required by law to impose upon individuals who are found guilty of certain crimes, regardless of the circumstances specific to the individual or the offense. Such a sentence may also represent a minimum or maximum prison term for...
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  Martha Chase Martha Chase was an American molecular geneticist who played a pivotal role in the Hershey-Chase experiment of 1952, which provided strong evidence that DNA is the genetic material of living organisms. Chase grew up in Cleveland Heights, Ohio, and attended the College of Wooster in Wooster, Ohio,...
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  Colonization of Africa Since the earliest days of human existence, Africa has been home to numerous societies and states. Yet, throughout history various foreign powers, such as the ancient Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans, have laid claim to African territory. The most extreme example was the colonization of Africa by...
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  four sacred medicines Four sacred medicines, group of plants—specifically cedar (Thuja occidentalis or T. plicata), sage (genus Artemisia or Salvia apiana), sweetgrass (Hierochloe odorata), and tobacco (Nicotiana rustica)—that are revered in certain Native American cultures, celebrated in particular for their spiritual,...
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  Air India flight 171 Air India flight 171, flight of a passenger airliner that crashed on June 12, 2025, in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India, claiming the lives of 241 of the 242 people on board, and more than two dozen people on the ground. Headed for London’s Gatwick Airport, the flight reportedly lost altitude moments...
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  giant wētā Giant wētā, (genus Deinacrida), genus of 11 species of large cricketlike insects that are endemic to New Zealand and are among the heaviest insects in the world. Giant wētā exemplify a phenomenon known as island gigantism, in which the lack of competition for resources and the paucity of predators...
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  Why Do Horses Need Horseshoes? Horses need horseshoes to protect their hooves from wear and tear on hard or rough surfaces. When horses walk on such terrains, their hooves can break or split open. The U-shaped metal plate of a horseshoe helps to prevent this wear, ensuring that the hooves remain intact and healthy over time....
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  What Are Elephant Trunks Used For? Elephants use their trunks as multifunctional appendages for a variety of tasks essential to their survival and daily life. Much like human hands, an elephant’s trunk serves as a tool for grasping and manipulating objects. This includes picking up food, such as grasses, leaves, and fruits, and...
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  HTTP 404 HTTP 404, HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) error indicating that an online resource could not be located. A 404 error, which falls under the client error response category of HTTP errors, is one of the most commonly seen of the 63 total HTTP status codes. A 404 error appears when the user...
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  What Causes Mirages? While it is commonly thought that mirages result from people’s imagination, the phenomenon is actually caused by mere optics. Mirages are optical illusions that appear when light rays bend, or refract, through layers of air with varying temperature and density. Light refraction occurs due to...
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  Third Council of Ephesus Third Council of Ephesus, (449), a controversial Christian council in Ephesus convened by the Eastern Roman emperor Theodosius II with Dioscorus, the patriarch of Alexandria, to uphold the monophysite Eutyches. The gathering was denounced by Pope Leo I as “the robber synod.” Dioscorus was a...
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  Second Council of Ephesus Second Council of Ephesus, (431), the third ecumenical council of the Christian church, meeting in Ephesus to clarify doctrine relating to the personhood (hypostasis) of Christ and combat the rise of Nestorianism. Pope Celestine I commissioned St. Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, to conduct...
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  Why Are There Two Colorado Rivers? Two distinct rivers in the United States share the name Colorado, each with its own geography and history. The better-known Colorado River begins in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and flows southwest for about 1,450 miles (2,330 km) to the Gulf of California. It drains roughly 246,000 square miles...
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  Thomas Heatherwick Thomas Heatherwick is a designer known especially for the often lavishly funded architectural projects produced by his practice, Heatherwick Studio. These works, including the Seed Cathedral for Expo Shanghai 2010 and the Vessel (2019) in New York City, have attracted public fascination and brought...
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  Why Are People from New Zealand Called Kiwis? People from New Zealand are called “Kiwis” because of their unique and symbolic connection to the kiwi, a flightless bird native to the country. The kiwi bird is known for its distinct features, such as its long beak and nocturnal habits, which make it a symbol of the country’s natural heritage....
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  FIFA Club World Cup The FIFA Club World Cup, founded in 2000, is an international tournament organized by FIFA to determine the world’s top men’s football (soccer) club. The competition features champion clubs from each of FIFA’s six continental confederations—Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), South...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Cheetah and a Leopard? Cheetahs and leopards are both large cats with dark spots and yellowish coats, but they have distinctly different body shapes and hunting techniques. Cheetahs are built for speed, with long legs and slender frames, and they weigh between 34 and 54 kg (75 and 119 pounds). They have unique black...
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  Why Is Antarctica a Desert? Antarctica can be classified as a desert because it receives very little precipitation. The average amount—which falls almost exclusively as snow—is only about 2 inches (50 mm) per year (liquid water equivalent) over the inland polar plateau, though the coastal belt receives considerably more,...
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  Java stingaree Java stingaree, (Urolophus javanicus), species of stingray of the family Urolophidae, the first marine fish declared extinct due to human activity. It is known to scientists through a single specimen collected in 1862 at a Jakarta fish market by German naturalist Eduard von Martens. It is assumed...
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  Bao Bao are a type of yeast-leavened filled bun in Chinese cuisine. These buns are typically prepared through steaming and may be filled with a wide range of ingredients—most commonly pork or vegetables, though sweet fillings are sometimes used. Bao originated in China and have since become popular...
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  How Does Electricity Work? Electricity works through the movement of negative charges carried by electrons (negatively charged subatomic particles). These charges can be either stationary or moving, and their interactions give rise to electricity. When charges are at rest, they create static electricity through an electric...
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  Billy Beane Billy Beane is a Major League Baseball (MLB) executive who helped revolutionize the sport by challenging longtime ways to measure players’ performance during his time as general manager of the Oakland Athletics (A’s). He became a celebrity after his work was chronicled in Michael Lewis’s...
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  How Was Devils Tower Formed? Scientists agree that Devils Tower was formed through a fascinating geological process involving volcanic activity and erosion more than 50 million years ago, but they disagree over how this process of formation was actually carried out. One of the most popular explanations is that Devils Tower...
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  oxaliplatin Oxaliplatin, platinum-based chemotherapy drug used primarily to treat colorectal cancer. Oxaliplatin often is used in combination with other anticancer drugs, especially 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and leucovorin. It was discovered in 1976 by Japanese chemist Kidani Yoshinori at Nagoya City University,...
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  Why Are Orcas Called Killer Whales? Orcas are called killer whales because of their reputation as powerful predators in the marine world. The name comes from ancient sailors who watched orcas hunting large marine animals. Impressed by orcas’ hunting skills, the sailors originally called them “whale killers,” a term that later became...
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  Why Do We Age? Aging is a complex process influenced by a combination of various factors, including genetics, our environment, and changes in our bodies over time. No single theory explains aging entirely, but some, such as the genetic theory and oxidative damage theories, offer detailed insights. The genetic...
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  How Do Frogs Breathe? Frogs have an adaptable respiratory system that allows them to breathe in multiple ways throughout their life cycle and in different environments. Frogs start their life as aquatic larvae, commonly known as tadpoles. During this stage they primarily rely on gills for respiration. These gills, along...
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  Boeing 767 Boeing 767, twin-engine wide-body aircraft developed and manufactured by the Boeing Company. It first flew on September 26, 1981, and started commercial operations in 1982 with United Airlines. It was developed in parallel with the 757 but with a wide body as opposed to the 757’s narrow body. It...
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  How Was Petroleum Discovered? Petroleum was discovered in early times by observing natural oil seeps and later extracted through drilling efforts as technology advanced. Ancient civilizations, including the Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians, noticed oil seeping to the surface as tar-like deposits or thin films on water...
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  Medieval law Medieval law, body of law in Europe during the Middle Ages, which consisted largely of common or customary law before the 12th century. Later, medieval scholars codified civil law based on Roman legal codes and canon law based on the decisions of ecclesiastical authorities. Medieval law affected...
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  Political Violence in the U.S. in the 21st Century Political violence often translates to assassination, and when we think about political assassinations and assassination attempts, we often think of presidents or presidential candidates: Abraham Lincoln, John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy. Certainly other leaders such as Huey Long and leaders of...
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  Why Is Tennessee Called the Volunteer State? Tennessee earned the nickname the “Volunteer State” due to its residents’ remarkable willingness to serve in the military, especially during key moments in U.S. history. The origin of the nickname dates back to the War of 1812 when a large number of Tennesseans volunteered to fight under Andrew...
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  How Fast Does Earth Spin? Earth spins at a velocity of about 1,674 kilometers (1,040 miles) per hour at the Equator. The speed at which Earth spins varies depending on the latitude. To find the velocity at any given latitude, one multiplies the equatorial speed by the cosine of the latitude. This means that the farther away...
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  Why Are Dalmatians Firefighter Dogs? Dalmatians are associated with firefighters because their temperament made them friendly companions for the horses pulling the fire wagons. Back in the 1800s, fire wagons were horse-drawn, and Dalmatians played a crucial role in this setup. Their natural affinity with horses made them excellent...
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  What Do Cheetahs Eat? Cheetahs are carnivores, which means that their diet consists primarily of meat. They hunt a variety of animals, such as birds, rabbits, and young warthogs. They also prey on many species of antelope, including the springbok, impala, gazelle, kudu, hartebeest, oryx, and roan. These animals are not...
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  World Bank Lifts Ban on Nuclear Funding ProCon Debate: Can Alternative Energy Effectively Replace Fossil Fuels? ProCon Issue in the News: On June 11, 2025, the World Bank announced that it would lift its ban on funding nuclear power projects. The World Bank is an “international organization affiliated with the United Nations (UN) and...
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  List of Deadliest Diseases Throughout history, certain diseases have left an indelible mark on humanity—claiming millions of lives, straining healthcare resources, and reshaping societies. While some diseases strike swiftly and others unfold over years, their collective toll is immense, measured not only in deaths but also...
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  How Do Snakes Swallow Large Prey? Snakes have a unique and fascinating way of swallowing prey that is much larger than their own heads and even bodies. The secret to a snake’s ability to consume prey larger (sometimes much larger) than itself lies in its highly flexible skull. Unlike most animals, snakes have a skull with multiple...
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  Why Are Icebergs Blue? Icebergs appear blue because of the way light interacts with the ice’s structure. When light enters the iceberg, it passes through a dense structure made of tightly packed ice crystals. The ice absorbs certain colors of light more than other colors. It absorbs longer wavelengths such as red and...
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  How Fast Can Eagles Fly? Eagles generally soar at speeds of about 50 km (30 miles) per hour when flying at high altitudes. They can accelerate to even greater speeds when diving in pursuit of prey. The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), one of the fastest eagle species, can swoop down at 240 to 320 km (150 to 200 miles) per...
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  How Fast Can Horses Run? The average horse can reach speeds of 50 km (30 miles) per hour at a gallop, the animal’s fastest gait (pattern of leg movements while in motion). Horses specifically bred for racing, such as Thoroughbreds and American Quarter Horses, can achieve even greater speeds—sometimes more than 64 km (40...
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  TEU TEU, standard unit for cargo capacity for container ships and ports. The TEU refers to a shipping container that measures 20 feet long (6.1 meters), 8 feet 6 inches (2.6 meters) high, and 8 feet (2.4 meters) wide. High-cube shipping containers have a height of 9 feet 6 inches (2.9 meters) and...
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  NOVA classification NOVA classification, system used to categorize foods according to the extent and purpose of their processing. The NOVA classification divides foods into four groups, ranging from unprocessed or minimally processed items to ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Through the 2010s the system gained...
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  religious order Religious order, in Roman Catholicism, a group of men or women who have professed solemn vows to live together under a religious rule (a regulation for the group’s conduct). Nuns, monks, friars, and some priests are members of such orders. Among well-known religious orders are the Jesuits,...
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  colony-stimulating factor Colony-stimulating factor (CSF), any of a group of naturally occurring proteins that play a vital role in the formation and regulation of blood cells. Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) specifically target hematopoietic stem cells (precursors of blood cells) in the bone marrow, encouraging them to...
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  List of Major Air India Disasters Air India, the flag carrier of India, spawned civil aviation in the country when its first flight took to the skies in 1932. Since then the airline has expanded its operations to various destinations across the globe, including Europe, Australia, Asia, the United States, and Canada. Although its...
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  Israel-Iran Conflict On June 13, 2025, Israel conducted a major operation against Iran. The anticipated attack, which targeted nuclear facilities, military sites, and regime infrastructure, followed nearly two years of war between Israel and Iran-backed militant groups that also saw two direct confrontations between...
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  Asian elephant Asian elephant, (Elephas maximus), largest land mammal in the continent of Asia, notable for its distinctive gray color, floppy large ears, and multifunctional trunk. On average, Asian elephants weigh between 3,400 and 5,200 kg (between about 7,500 and 11,500 pounds) and stand between about 2.6 to...
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  Why Are Native Americans Called Indians? Native Americans are called Indians due to a historical misinterpretation by Christopher Columbus. The term “Indian” originated from his mistaken belief that he had reached the shores of South Asia when he arrived in the Americas. Columbus was convinced he had found a new route to the Indian...
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  What Was the Best Year for Movies? In the history of film, some years have stood out as being especially great for movies. Those years saw an abundance of gems for film lovers, from epic blockbusters to sleeper hits to independent projects that have stood the test of time. Below is a list of six of the best years for film and the...
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  Why Are Beer Bottles Brown? Beer bottles are often brown to protect the contents from light exposure, which can lead to unwanted changes in flavor. Light, especially ultraviolet (UV) light, can trigger a chemical reaction in beer. This reaction, often referred to as “skunking,” results in an unpleasant smell and taste. Brown...
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  How Was the Roman Colosseum Built? The Roman Colosseum was constructed using a combination of innovative engineering techniques and a variety of materials, reflecting the architectural prowess of ancient Rome. The construction of the Colosseum began under Emperor Vespasian between 70 and 72 ce. The site chosen for the Colosseum had...
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  Noli Me Tangere Noli Me Tangere, fresco painted by early Renaissance Italian artist Fra Angelico in 1440–41 in one of the monks’ cells in the priory at San Marco, Florence. It reflects serenity and religious devotion. The fresco depicts a moment described in the Gospel According to John in which Mary Magdalene has...
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  Universal life insurance combines coverage with savings—but not without trade-offs It might sound like the best of all worlds: A life insurance policy that lets you adjust how much you pay each month and acts a bit like a savings account. That’s the idea behind universal life insurance, a policy that lasts a lifetime, with features you can tailor to your needs. But that...
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  How AI can help your small business If you own a small business, you’re familiar with the challenges that come with it, from managing cash flow and responding to customer questions to promoting your products and services and finding new hires. But artificial intelligence (AI) has started to ease some of those pressures—and even...
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  The Monarch of the Glen The Monarch of the Glen, painting created in 1851 by English artist Sir Edwin Landseer. It went on to become the most widely recognized of his paintings. Landseer was the greatest animal painter of his age. He was one of Queen Victoria’s favorite artists and shared with her a fascination with and...
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  Memory, the Heart Memory, the Heart, self-portrait created in 1937 by Mexican artist Frida Kahlo. Kahlo produced more than 55 self-portraits, all dealing with issues of identity. Memory, the Heart expresses the pain and sorrow she felt about the extramarital affair between her husband, muralist Diego Rivera, and her...
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  kaiseki Kaiseki, traditional Japanese cuisine that consists of a multicourse meal prepared with seasonal ingredients and that is generally served on special occasions. The term kaiseki can refer to one of two types of meals, depending on the kanji characters used in its spelling. Kaiseki (懐石), also known...
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  Why Do Bees Buzz? Most of what we hear as buzzing from bees is due to the rapid beating of their tiny wings. Some bees beat their wings a mind-blowing 230 times a second, generating quite the buzz. This is also mostly why we hear buzzing sounds from flies, wasps, and various other fast-flying insects. In addition,...
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  The 14th Dalai Lama: A Life in Pictures He is the 14th Dalai Lama but the first to become a global figure. Although the spiritual leader of Tibet, he has been exiled from his homeland since 1959, following an abortive rebellion as China sought to reestablish control of the area. Since then he has traveled the world advocating for...
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  Britannica’s Flower Bingo Do you know a dandelion from a daffodil? A petunia from a poppy? We’ve highlighted 24 beautiful blossoms in our Flower Bingo. See if you can name all the flowers in a row or column. Or, go for the blackout and complete the whole card! How many can you identify? Want to further test your botanical...
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  What’s a Hoosier? People from certain U.S. states go by unusual names—Connecticuter, Michigander, Utahn, to name a few—but Hoosiers from Indiana are the only ones whose name isn’t based on their state name at all. Nobody really knows why it came into being, what the word originally meant, or where it came from. Some...
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  Britannica’s U.S. Presidents Bingo Whose smile is that? Whose mustache? See how many of these 24 U.S. presidents you can name. For more presidential play, check out our quiz about U.S. Presidential Nicknames. Spotlight, presidents, U.S. presidents, bingo, game, George Washington, Barack Obama, Donald Trump, Abraham Lincoln, John F....
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  The First Indy 500: A Spectacular Start in 1911 On May 30, 1911, “The Greatest Spectacle in Racing” was born with the inaugural running of the Indianapolis 500. Upward of 90,000 spectators packed the Indianapolis Motor Speedway to see 40 cars speed around a 2.5-mile track 200 times. Bands played, and people bought ham sandwiches and lemonade...
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  How Is Light Both a Particle and a Wave? The behavior of light cannot be explained solely by models of particles or solely by models of waves. If light is a particle, then why does it refract when travelling from one medium to another? And if light is a wave, then why does it dislodge electrons? But all behavior of light can be explained...
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  Tuskegee Trains the Majority of the United States’ Black Veterinarians Of the country’s 33 accredited veterinary colleges, only one is on a historically Black campus: Tuskegee University College of Veterinary Medicine in Alabama. According to Tuskegee, more than 70 percent of Black veterinarians in the United States received a degree from its veterinary college. But...
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  Timeline of the 1980s The 1980s have been called “the decade of decadence,” and one of the era’s most notable movie characters, Wall Street’s Gordon Gekko, famously declared that “greed is…good.” But the decade was about more than just excess. It was a period marked by defining events that continue to resonate. The...
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  What Is the Difference Between a Grain and a Seed? The word grain is usually used for the edible seeds of a cereal grass, such as rice, barley, or corn (maize). A cereal grass’s fruits—the fleshy or dry ripened ovaries of a flowering plant that contain seeds—are also often referred to as grains. Technically, most grains are actually a type of fruit...
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  How Fast Is the Universe Expanding? The rate at which the universe is expanding is called the Hubble constant, named after astronomer Edwin Hubble, who, with Milton Humason, showed convincingly that the velocity with which a galaxy was moving away from Earth was proportional to its distance. That is, velocity = Hubble constant ×...
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  What Does Photosynthesis Produce? Photosynthesis produces sugar, with oxygen gas as a by-product. The process of photosynthesis is commonly written as: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2. This means that six carbon dioxide molecules and six water molecules are converted by light energy captured by chlorophyll (implied by the arrow) into a...
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  Why Doesn’t Arizona Observe Daylight Saving Time? Daylight Saving Time (DST) was introduced in countries around the world during the 20th century with the intention of lowering energy consumption and aligning sunlight hours to be more amenable to active work hours in the summertime. When DST was imposed in the United States through the passage of...
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  How Many of the Signers of the U.S. Constitution Were Enslavers? There does not appear to be a consensus on the number of men who signed the U.S. Constitution—or, more broadly, were delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787—and who were also enslavers. According to the Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History, “about 25” delegates enslaved people,...
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  How Does GPS Work? The Global Positioning System—better known as GPS—has 31 satellites orbiting Earth. These satellites carry atomic clocks that keep very accurate time. The GPS satellites transmit this time to receivers on Earth. By comparing the time at the receiver to the time transmitted by the satellite and then...
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  How Do Antacids Work? Antacids containing substances such as sodium bicarbonate, magnesium hydroxide, or calcium carbonate fundamentally are bases. They work by counteracting or neutralizing gastric acids to relieve the discomfort caused by gastric acidity. These medications typically are taken when gastric acidity is...
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  Do Vaccines Cause Autism? No, vaccines do not cause autism. This damaging claim became a controversial issue in 1998, when a paper published in the journal The Lancet suggested that childhood vaccination was linked to autism. The claim subsequently fueled fears among some parents and resulted in widespread misinformation...
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  Is Hong Kong a Country? No, Hong Kong is not a country. Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China. Hong Kong’s status as a special administrative region stems from its history as a former British colony. By way of treaty or lease with China, the islands and mainland area now known as Hong Kong came under the...
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  How Do Vaccines Work? Vaccines work by imitating infection to encourage the body to produce antibodies against infectious agents. In doing so, the body’s immune system adds to its memory, so if the body ever encounters the same infectious agent again, it is ready to fight it off. There are several different types of...
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  What Is the Difference Between Hemp and Marijuana? Hemp and marijuana plants are usually understood to be varieties of the same species: Cannabis sativa. The term marijuana generally refers to the varieties of cannabis that are used medicinally or recreationally as a psychotropic drug, whereas hemp plants are cultivated as a source of hemp fiber...
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  How Do Cockroaches Breathe? Like other insects, the cockroach does not have lungs. Instead, its respiratory system consists primarily of a network of tubes, called tracheae, that open at the surface of the thorax and abdomen through paired valvelike structures called spiracles. Muscles on or near the spiracles keep them...
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  What Is the Difference Between DNA and RNA? Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are complex molecular structures that control all hereditary characteristics of cells and thus of organisms. DNA is the master blueprint for life and constitutes the genetic material in all free-living organisms. RNA uses DNA to code for the...
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  How Do You Rewild an Environment? In the field of ecology, rewilding is formally known as ecological restoration, and it is complicated! The first challenge is deciding on the goal for the restoration. Will you try to make the area look like it did immediately before it was degraded? Or should you aim for how it was before the...
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  How Do Glowworms Glow? There are actually a number of different insects known as "glowworms," and they have a variety of mechanisms for their bioluminescence. The different species have bioluminescent organs that vary in size, structure, number, and location, a fact that suggests these insects independently evolved their...
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  Why Does a Mushroom Cloud Look Like a Mushroom? A mushroom cloud is the iconic and terrifying result of a thermonuclear explosion, but actually a mushroom cloud can be created by any massive release of heat, such as from a volcano or from something like the 2020 Beirut explosion. Heat rises, and the incredible blast of heat and energy from an...
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  Why Do Scientific Names Have Two Parts? Biology uses a convention known as binomial nomenclature to uniquely name the diverse organisms of our planet. The two parts of a scientific name are the genus, which is capitalized, and the species, which is not; both names are italicized. Let’s look at the scientific name for the common peach,...
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  Why Do Leaves Change Color in the Fall? Green leaves get their color from the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll. When deciduous leaves are preparing to separate from the tree in autumn, that green pigment begins to break down. This can then reveal other leaf pigments that were masked by the green, such as yellow and orange carotenoids....
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  Why Are Tomatoes Red? Most tomatoes are red when they are ripe, because of the presence of lycopene, which is a phytochemical (a biologically active compound produced by plants). Immature tomatoes are rich in chlorophyll, another phytochemical, which gives them their green colour. As the seeds inside mature, the fruits...
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  How Do We Know That Dinosaurs May Have Had Feathers? Modern birds are living dinosaurs, having evolved from a line of theropod dinosaurs more than 150 million years ago. According to fossil evidence, some dinosaurs from long ago even had feathers—or structures that had various aspects of modern bird feathers before birds evolved. In the mid-1990s...
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  Is Earth Going to Change the Direction in Which It Rotates? It’s not likely, but there are things that could stop Earth’s rotation and get it moving in the other direction. The force from a collision with a body the size of the Moon or a small planet might be enough to overcome Earth’s rotational inertia, depending on the angle and speed of the collision....
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  When Were the First GMOs Developed? While plant breeding and animal breeding have existed for many, many millennia, the ability to create a genetically modified organism (GMO) depends on sophisticated DNA technologies that were created only in the second half of the 20th century and continue to improve. Indeed, many GMOs contain...
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  Do Plants Emit Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide at Night? Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use energy from the sun to make food. They use carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil to make sugar and oxygen. Most plants release oxygen only during the day, when the sun can power photosynthesis. The exceptions to this general rule are...
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  Why Are Roads Made of Asphalt? When you think of a long stretch of road, you probably imagine a black thoroughfare fading into the distance. Asphalt is a ubiquitous material for road construction, and that’s because it is usually the most economical option. Not only is asphalt generally cheaper than concrete, but asphalt...
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  Maps of the Battle of Midway The Battle of Midway took place June 3–6, 1942, in the Pacific Ocean during World War II between the United States and Japan. This infographic provides three maps showing key places related to the battle and their positions relative to one another. In addition, it presents a diagram showing the...
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  Women in the United States by the Numbers: 1920 Versus 2020 This infographic shows graphs that compare aspects of the lives of women in the United States over a century. Spotlight, women, United States, gender, statistics, life expectancy, marriage, children, education, workforce participation,...
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  U.S. Death Toll During Major Events This infographic shows the death toll caused by major events during the history of the United States, including the COVID-19 pandemic, in the form of a bar chart that compares the magnitude of each number. The attack on Pearl Harbor killed 2,404 Americans. Hurricane Maria in 2017 killed 2,982...
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  Why Is Eating Protein Important? There are three basic macronutrients that the body needs to survive: fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Proteins are directly involved with the chemical processes that support life, and proteins help compose the enzymes, hormones, and tissues that form our bodies and keep them running smoothly....
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  Teenagers Who Changed the World in 2020 Teenagers are changing the world in many widely different fields, from social and political leadership to new technologies that battle the effects of climate change. Many of them did so in the difficult year of 2020 even while facing great personal challenges. All the exceptional teenagers profiled...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Architecture, Urban Studies, and Engineering) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  Why Was Frederick Douglass’s Marriage to Helen Pitts Controversial? On the morning of January 25, 1884, Jane Pitts woke up to newspaper headlines that her daughter Helen, without her knowledge, had married the famous abolitionist and writer Frederick Douglass. The news of the union shocked many people, and scrutiny came from all sides at once toward the newlyweds,...
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  Why Does COVID-19 Disproportionately Affect African Americans, Hispanics, and Latinos? This article was originally published on July 2, 2020, during the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic, when much was unknown or partially known about the disease and its impact. As the COVID-19 pandemic has unfolded in the United States and health experts have collected increasing amounts of...
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  What Is a Second Wave of a Pandemic, and Could It Happen for COVID-19? This article was originally published May 15, 2020, and updated October 15, 2020. When a global outbreak of disease begins to slow, feelings of relief and a sense of moving on ensue. But historically, based on past pandemics involving diseases like the plague, cholera, and influenza, that feeling...
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  Beyond Venus Flytraps: The Plants that Eat Meat Most people are familiar with the Venus flytrap. Small and ominous-looking, the plants are commonly sold as novelties, and many a curious child (or adult) has triggered its sinister traps with a pencil to see its amazingly rapid response. However, carnivory in plants is not limited to the famous...
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  Vikings Helped Cats Conquer the World While Vikings don’t exactly have a reputation for being cuddly, their travel companions do. Hoping to shed some light on the early history of cats, in 2016 researchers reported the results of a study in which they sequenced the DNA of 209 felines, the remains of which had been found at various...
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  How the Symbolism of the Swastika Was Ruined The earliest known use of the swastika symbol—an equilateral cross with arms bent to the right at 90° angles—was discovered carved on a 15,000-year-old ivory figurine of a bird made from mammoth tusk. The ancient engraving is hypothesized to have been used for fertility and health purposes, the...
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  Olympics: A Survey of Banned Substances The use of performance-enhancing drugs among athletes competing in the Olympic Games is not new—as early as 1904, American runner Thomas Hicks was given doses of strychnine during the marathon at the Summer Olympics in St. Louis, Missouri. He ended up winning the race after the first-place finisher...
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  The Bizarre Origins of the Words Nerd and Geek Nerd and geek have similar etymologies, with neither originally having much positive association. According to Benjamin Nugent, author of American Nerd: The Story of My People, the word nerd first appeared in the Dr. Seuss book If I Ran the Zoo, in which one of the zoo creatures, an angry little...
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  Diagnosing 9 of Charles Dickens’s Most Famous Characters English novelist Charles Dickens had a knack for expertly portraying the symptoms of medical conditions. He also had a tendency to slip those descriptions into his works in subtle terms, such that historians and physicians have made it something of a hobby to interpret them medically and attempt to...
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  Why Is Ireland Two Countries? The island of Ireland comprises the Republic of Ireland, which is a sovereign country, and Northern Ireland, which is part of the United Kingdom. The Republic of Ireland endured a hard-fought birth. Ruled from Great Britain since the 13th century, its citizens, many of them suppressed Catholics,...
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  Why Is Thanksgiving in the U.S. Celebrated on a Thursday? Thanksgiving is one of the most popular holidays in the United States, but formally establishing the day on which it is to be observed was difficult and fraught with controversy. By federal law, Americans have celebrated Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday in November since 1942, but numerous other...
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  The Craziest Scam? Gregor MacGregor Creates His Own Country In 1822 and 1823 hundreds of people departed England and Scotland on voyages to the promising new country of Poyais. Clutching Poyaisian currency and filled with hope for a prosperous future, the would-be settlers were shocked to find that the bustling harbor, elegant capital city, and readily...
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  How Do Birds Hear? Birds rely on their keen sense of hearing to detect prey and identify other birds on the basis of their songs. In fact, birds have better hearing resolution than humans, so they hear with much more detail. However, birds lack the external ear anatomy that humans rely on. So how do birds hear? Birds...
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  5 Things You Don’t Know About Jimmy Carter Jimmy Carter was many things: a person of great compassion and integrity, keen intelligence, and a sweeping decency. He was also deeply suspicious of politics and, despite the popular perception that arose during the Iran hostage crisis, exceedingly tough-minded. Carter’s triumphs with the Camp...
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  How Many Countries Are There in the World? The United Nations includes 193 member countries and 2 recognized independent nations (Vatican City and Palestine). See a list of countries here, or visit our country portal here. Companion, countries, world countries, united nations, Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia...
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  Do Sharks Sleep? It is a common misconception that sharks as a species never sleep because they must keep moving to stay alive. Sharks do engage in periods of rest throughout the day, but it is much different from the kind of sleep that other animals engage in. It is true that many types of sharks must keep moving...
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  The 1916 Shark Attacks That Gave Sharks a Bad Rap These days, even the mention of sharks can strike fear into the hearts of many—but it wasn’t always this way. Decades before Steven Spielberg’s Jaws (1975) convinced beachgoers not to go into the water, there was one fateful summer when a series of shark attacks led to widespread panic and earned...
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  Why Is the Indy 500 Held on Memorial Day Weekend? The first full year of auto racing at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway was 1910. Races were held over the weekends of Memorial Day (then called Decoration Day), the Fourth of July, and Labor Day. However, attendance fell off over the summer. The speedway’s management felt there had been too much...
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  What Is the Most Aerodynamic Animal? Aerodynamics is a branch of physics that examines the forces acting on bodies (cars, rocks, animals, etc.) passing through air and other gaseous fluids, and it’s used to explain the principles of flight. When it comes to the most aerodynamic animal—which could be taken to mean "the fastest...
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  Estimated Battle Casualties During the Normandy Invasion and Campaign to Liberate Paris (June–August 1944) This graph provides a comparison of the estimated battle casualties during the Normandy Invasion, which began on D-Day (June 6, 1944), and the subsequent Allied campaign that liberated Paris several months later, in August—a crucial period that helped bring World War II to an end in Europe the...
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  What Is the Difference Between a Typhoon and a Super Typhoon? The terms typhoon and hurricane are regional names for the same weather phenomenon, the tropical cyclone. Tropical cyclones are intense circular storms that begin over warm tropical oceans, and they are characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain. They draw their energy...
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  Why Does the Tropic of Cancer’s Location on Earth Move Over Time? The Tropic of Cancer is a line of latitude approximately 23°27′ north of Earth’s Equator. This latitude corresponds to the northernmost declination of the Sun’s ecliptic to the celestial equator. At the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, about June 21, the direct (that is, 90°) rays of the...
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  Timeline of the Titanic’s Final Hours Learn more about the doomed ocean liner’s sinking. Companion, Titanic, ocean liner, sinking, White Star Line, iceberg, Captain Edward J. Smith, J. Bruce...
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  How Did the Tradition of Christmas Trees Start? Christmas has numerous traditions, of which perhaps none is more popular than a decorated tree. Whether real or artificial, Christmas trees are synonymous with the holiday. But how did trees become part of Christmas? Trees have been used in rituals and as decorations since ancient times, thus...
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  Why Do Some Animals Eat Their Mates After Sex? The practice of sexual cannibalism may sound like a horrific piece of fiction, but in fact this occurs in the behavioral repertoires of several animals. It refers to the eating of all or part of one’s mate during courtship or copulation. This behavior can seem like an evolutionary puzzle: Why would...
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  Where Did the -stan Country Name Suffix Come From? Some countries in southern and central Asia and some of Russia’s republics have names that end in the suffix -stan. If you aren’t from Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, or elsewhere in the region, you may be wondering where this suffix comes from and what it means. The -stan suffix, and also sta...
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  What Was the Super Bowl’s First Blockbuster Commercial? It’s 1984. More than 77 million Americans—nearly one-third of the country—are tuned in to their televisions to watch Super Bowl XVIII. The Los Angeles Raiders are down 9 to 28 in the third quarter against the Washington Redskins when the teams pause for a commercial break. Suddenly, a brass...
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  Why Are Elephants’ Ears So Big? An elephant’s large ears serve several purposes. Thermoregulation—an organism’s maintenance of its own body temperature within an optimal range—is likely the primary purpose. The animal lives in a warm climate, and, to keep its body temperature from rising too high, it needs to transfer excess body...
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  Do Hurricanes Happen on Other Planets? Technically speaking, no planets apart from Earth are known to have hurricanes. This is partly because of the definition of a hurricane, which is not just a big storm but a type of cyclone driven by convection processes specific to warm-water oceans. But other planets do have massive storms. Mars...
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  Could We Lose All the Soil on Earth? Soil—a complicated medium, formed slowly by both biological and geological processes—exists as a thin barrier on the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust on land. Given that soil is found nearly everywhere on the surface of the continents (with the exception of very rocky areas), it is unlikely that we...
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  Why Is There Fresh and Salt Water on Earth? Rain and other forms of precipitation fall on our planet as slightly acidic fresh water. As some of this water washes over the landscape, it physically erodes rocks and chemically breaks them down. It then carries salts from the rocks into rivers and other streams and deposits the salts in the...
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  Why Does Your Voice Change as You Age? Your voice changes as you become an adult and may change even further as you age. The pitch of a person’s voice depends largely on how tightly the vocal cord muscles contract as the air from the lungs hits them. A child’s voice is high because the larynx (voice box) is small and the vocal cords are...
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  How Does Soap Work? Soap is able to clean hands and dishes because of some pretty nifty chemistry. Soap molecules have on one end what’s known as a polar salt, which is hydrophilic, or attracted to water. The other end of the molecule is a nonpolar chain of fatty acids or hydrocarbons, which is hydrophobic—meaning...
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  Is It True That Squirrels Forget Where They Bury About Half of Their Food? The verdict is out on whether squirrels forget about half of the nuts they bury: surely some squirrels do. Forgotten nuts and acorns grow into trees, so squirrel absentmindedness produces some ecological benefits. While it’s almost certain that squirrels indeed forget some subset of the nuts that...
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  How Old Is Niagara Falls? Niagara Falls, the iconic waterfall at the border of Ontario, Canada, and New York state, is fairly young, as waterfalls go. It began to form more than 12,000 years ago, toward the end of the Wisconsin Glacial Stage. The deluge of the melting ice from the retreating glaciers carved into the rock...
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  Infographic: Mass Shootings in the United States, 1982-Present A mass shooting, also called an active shooter incident, is defined by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) as an event in which one or more individuals are “actively engaged in killing or attempting to kill people in a populated area. Implicit in this definition is the shooter’s use of a...
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  Facts and Figures About the Landings on Omaha Beach During the Normandy Invasion on June 6, 1944 This infographic shows facts and figures about the landings on Omaha Beach on June 6, 1944, during World War II. The following text, which is taken from a lightly edited narrative description of this infographic, provides more details and background. (Read Sir John Keegan’s Britannica entry on the...
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  Events of the Ancient Olympic Games The Olympic Games began in Olympia, Greece, in 776 BCE and took place every four years until 393 CE. They were held in honor of Zeus. At the first Games, athletes competed in only one running event held on a single day. However, over the years other events were added, and the Games eventually were...
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  Current and Historical Droughts Around the World Drought is an extended period of rainless weather that causes a considerable water imbalance. This infographic features a map showing current droughts (as of August 2022) by continent: The map also shows major historical droughts by continent: Some of the visible signs of drought are crop damage,...
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  Timeline of the Manhattan Project The Manhattan Project had its origins in 1939, when U.S. scientists urged President Franklin D. Roosevelt to establish a program to study the potential military use of fission; $6,000 was appropriated for the task. By 1942 the project was code-named Manhattan, for the site of Columbia University,...
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  What Was the Science Behind Medical Bloodletting? “The body of man has in itself blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile,” begins a text attributed to the ancient Greek physician Hippocrates. Regarded as the father of modern medicine, he is often the subject of legend rather than fact; of the near-60 medical writings that bear his name, it is...
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  What Allied Troops Encountered at Omaha Beach During the Normandy Invasion This infographic offers a description of the obstacles Allied forces faced on a typical section of Omaha Beach during the Normandy Invasion. In the ocean below the low-tide line were a line of log posts (some with mines affixed) followed by a line of hedgehogs, five-foot-tall obstacles made of...
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  Britannica’s Book Bingo Do you like to read? Or do you want to read more? Britannica is here to help. In our Book Bingo, you’ll find reading prompts as well as suggestions for authors and books to try. See if you can fill in a row or column. Or, for the ultimate challenge, complete the whole card. Happy reading!...
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  Can You Guess the Movie by the Scene? Are you fanatic about film? Has anyone called you a cinephile? If so, then this photo challenge is for you. From just the scenes pictured, can you identify the iconic movies? Spotlight, movie, quiz, Titanic, The Silence of the Lambs, Moonlight, Inception, Sound of Music, Britannica, Encyclopaedia...
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  Presidential Debate Bingo If you want to get the facts about subjects and people likely to come up in the 2024 presidential debates, click on the topics here. Then, as you watch the televised debates, mark off the topics as they are raised and celebrate when you get five in a row. Spotlight, Britannica, Encyclopedia...
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  A Timeline of Environmental History Nearly all of the major milestones in U.S. and global environmental legislation have been enacted since the 1960s. Key policies and international agreements have been established for air and water quality, for plant and animal life, to heal the ozone layer, and to combat anthropogenic climate...
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  Timeline of the 1970s The decade after the “Swinging Sixties” was marked by unrest and upheaval. Although the Vietnam War effectively ended with the Fall of Saigon, other conflicts arose, including the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The United States faced political turmoil as President Richard Nixon resigned amid the...
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  How Diverse Are HBCUs? When you think of Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs), there are likely many terms and phrases that come to mind to describe the important and, indeed, historic work being done in the United States by these institutions of higher education. But diverse may not be one of them. It...
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  The Perils of an Early Spring Outside of the tropics, the spring season is a time of renewal as buds and leaves begin to sprout on trees and other plants, insects and other animals emerge from their winter slumber, birds return from their warm-weather refuges near the Equator, and the pace of outdoor cultural events picks up in...
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  An Interview with Jimmy Carter: Global Challenges to the United States in a New Millennium The following interview with Jimmy Carter was originally published in Britannica’s Book of the Year in 2004. Few people in the United States have a better overview of the state of the world than Jimmy Carter. He has been a submarine officer in the U.S. Navy, a successful peanut farmer, governor of...
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  Prominent HBCU Alumni Most people know their names, but some may not know that these celebrities and prominent people attended Historically Black Colleges and Universities, or HBCUs. The country’s top Black elected official, Vice President Kamala Harris, graduated from Howard University in Washington, D.C. So did the...
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  Why Are There So Few HBCU Medical Schools? At the turn of the 20th century, there were seven medical schools focused on training and sending Black doctors into the various medical professions. In 1910, however, a report titled Medical Education in the United States and Canada was largely responsible for closing all but two of the...
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  What Makes HBCUs Unique? Say HBCU and many people think of the Bayou Classic, the often nationally televised football matchup between the Southern University Jaguars and the Grambling State University Tigers. Some fans would say that what is more important than the play of the football teams is the performance of the...
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  Timeline of the 1990s The last decade of the 20th century was defined by a number of transformative events. The emergence of Google and Amazon fueled the growing popularity of the Internet and forever changed everyday life. On the political front, the decades-long Cold War ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union,...
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  When Dylan “Went Electric” Bob Dylan’s performance at the Newport (Rhode Island) Folk Festival in 1965 is widely regarded as one of the pivotal moments in the history of rock music. But if there is near consensus on its importance, there is much less agreement on exactly what happened. Rock historians, Dylan’s biographers,...
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  A Teen Girl Recalls Juneteenth in the 1950s June 19, 1956, fell on a Tuesday. It was 90 years to the day from the first celebration of Juneteenth, commemorating the day when enslaved Africans in Texas became the last in the nation to receive word of their freedom, more than a year after the Emancipation Proclamation and two months after the...
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  Is the Number of Hurricanes Increasing? Tropical cyclones (hurricanes and typhoons) form over warm areas of the ocean where the water temperature is high enough to fuel evaporation and storm development. If the ocean’s surface temperature is below 26 °C (79 °F), there will not be enough heat available and evaporation rates will be too...
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  The Evergreen Benefits of Rooftop Gardening Also known as a “green roof” or “landscaped rooftop,” a rooftop garden is a cultivated garden on top of a building. From humble container gardens on flat-top houses to impressive spreads on city skyscrapers, rooftop gardens have an illustrious history and offer topside tranquility with a myriad of...
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  How Did Joseph McCarthy’s Anticommunist Rhetoric Impact the LGBTQ+ Community? On February 9, 1950, junior Wisconsin senator Joseph McCarthy delivered a speech in Wheeling, West Virginia, that would thrust him into the national spotlight. This scathing tirade is perhaps best known for McCarthy’s claim that he had with him a list of 205 known communists who were presently...
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  Was Jesse Owens Snubbed by Adolf Hitler at the Berlin Olympics? By early 1933 Adolf Hitler had effectively become the dictator of Germany. All non-Nazi parties, organizations, and labor unions had ceased to exist. The reciprocal ideologies of pan-Germanic expansionism and anti-Semitism had taken root. Members of “non-Aryan” (non-white and Jewish) races were...
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  What Led to France’s Reign of Terror? On September 5, 1793, a group of Parisian radicals petitioned the National Convention to place “terror on the order of the day.” Seizing that mandate, the Committee of Public Safety in Paris responded with ruthless efficiency to real and perceived threats to its rule. By the time the Reign of...
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  How Does A Ventilator Work? Mechanical ventilators have played an important, if controversial, role in the treatment of patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)—helping critically ill persons breathe in the near term, but with potentially harmful trade-offs for lung function over the long term. For COVID-19...
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  Saving Sharks in the 2020s Shark finning is the harvesting of a shark’s lateral, dorsal, and lower tail fins, which is often followed by releasing the shark alive back into the ocean, where it later dies. In the early 21st century the public began to learn how the commercial fishing industry contributed to the spread and the...
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  Britannica’s Dog Bingo Do you know a Bulldog from a Beagle? A Pug from a Poodle? We’ve highlighted 24 breeds in our Dog Bingo. How many can you name? If you want more, take our quiz about dog breeds. Spotlight, dogs, breeds, bingo, Labrador Retriever, Beagle, Siberian Husky, Poodle, French Bulldog, Encyclopedia...
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  Who Are the Alevis in Turkey? In April 2023 Turkish presidential candidate Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu made waves when he announced on social media, “Ben Alevi’yim—I’m an Alevi.” Until that moment, being Alevi carried a stigma for many people in Turkey. For Kılıçdaroğlu, his video was a celebration of pluralism in Turkish society. But...
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  Does Ball Lightning Exist? More than 200 years ago, the crew of the HMS Warren Hastings reported being attacked by giant balls of fire that descended from the sky. The mysterious fireballs reportedly set the ship on fire and killed several people. A century later, a “dazzling globe of electric fire” appeared in the cottage...
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  Why Was the Black Panther Film So Popular? The Black Panther comic book superhero has long been a Marvel fan favourite, especially among comic enthusiasts of colour. But when the Wakandan prince took to the big screen in 2018 as the lead in his own movie, his story shattered box-office records, took over the Internet, and inspired millions....
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  Why Does Hair Turn Gray? Hair turns gray as melanocytes—the cells that generate melanin, which gives hair (and skin) its coloration—deteriorate because of age, environment, or disease. Hair doesn’t gray uniformly: it may gray on some parts of the body earlier than on other parts. The age one goes gray is determined in part...
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  Why Do Gray Hairs Have a Different Texture? Gray hairs are indeed unusual, and not only because of their color. Gray hair is stiffer and more wiry than hair rich in pigment. Exactly why this is the case is not fully understood. Gray hair has reduced levels of melanin, which is the pigment that gives hair and skin its color. Within the hair...
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  A Brief and Cringe-Inducing History of Curb Your Enthusiasm It’s a television show famous for its cringe-inducing scenes: the main character retrieves his golf club from a coffin, splashes urine on a painting of Jesus, questions why his friend has a Black dermatologist—“even with the whole affirmative action thing?” Some viewers are so uncomfortable with...
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  Why Is Labor Day Celebrated in September? The origins of Labor Day can be traced to the labor movement of the late 19th century in the United States. There is some uncertainty as to who deserves credit for the idea; most cite either Peter J. McGuire, a union leader who founded the United Brotherhood of Carpenters in 1881, or Matthew...
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  Why Do Jeans Have That Tiny Pocket? Coins? Matches? Lipstick? Flash drives? Gold nuggets? The tiny pocket on jeans likely has been used for all of these, even the last (more on that in minute). But, as designed by Levi Strauss and Jacob Davis in 1873 as a feature of the original “waist overalls,” the small pocket was intended to hold...
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  What Are the Symptoms of a Stroke? The onset of stroke can manifest in different ways. In many instances, the affected person may experience sudden weakness and numbness of an arm or a leg on one side of the body, or a side of the face. There may be temporary difficulty in speech, confusion, severe headache, or visual disturbances,...
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  What’s the Difference Between Sugar in Fruit and Sugar in Sweets and Candy? Sugar in fruit and sugar in processed foods are not the same. Fruits contain sugars known as fructose and glucose. When these sugars are combined, the result is sucrose (commonly called table sugar or white sugar). Sucrose occurs naturally in almost all plants but is especially abundant in...
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  Where Was the First Roller Coaster Invented? The first roller coaster was invented in Russia. Roller coasters have their origins in a form of ice sledding that became popular in Russia in the 15th century. An adaptation opened in 1784 in St. Petersburg that included carriages on grooved tracks. Further adaptations were made in the 19th...
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  Do GM Foods Affect the Body Differently? Genetically modified (GM) foods affect the body in the same way as non-GM foods. In fact, multiple studies comparing the safety of GM and non-GM foods have found no difference in how these foods affect the body. For example, GM foods are not more likely to cause allergic reactions than non-GM...
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  What Are the Differences Between First-, Second-, and Third-Degree Murder? Murder is the act of causing the death of another person without legal justification or excuse. The U.S. federal code and most state codes distinguish between different degrees of murder, though state codes differ in how many degrees are recognized (one, two, or three) and how the degrees are...
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  Do Birds Pee? Most people are all too familiar with the white sludge that can fall from above as you enjoy the outdoors, universally recognized as bird poop. Yet we don’t experience a similar threat, as far as we know, in the form of a liquid bird urine. This begs us to ponder: Do birds pee? The answer to this...
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  Is Mount Everest Really the Tallest Mountain in the World? Mount Everest is best described as the highest mountain in the world. In other words: it has the greatest elevation, at more than 29,000 feet (about 8,850 meters) above sea level. Other mountains, though, have made claims on being the tallest when measured from points other than sea level....
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  How Mike the Chicken Survived Without a Head On September 10, 1945, Lloyd Olsen was beheading chickens for market on his family farm in Fruita, Colorado, when one of the decapitated birds picked itself up and started running around the yard, still very much alive. Olsen put the chicken, which he named Mike, in a box on the porch and was...
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  Why Do Dogs Circle Before They Lie Down? There may be several reasons why dogs turn around several times before they lie down. Since dogs are intelligent mammals with varying emotional states and levels of awareness, the behaviour of circling before lying down may depend on the individual dog and its situation. According to many sources,...
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  How Do We Know What Dinosaurs Sounded Like? All animals make sounds. Many sounds are made as an animal moves through its environment, such as the thud or patter of its feet on the ground, the scraping of its body against rocks, a brushing as it passes through vegetation, and a splashing at the surface of water, as well as sounds associated...
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  How Can Some Trees Survive for Thousands of Years? Some of the oldest living things on our remarkable planet are trees. The record holders are bristlecone pines of the western United States, quite a few of which are known to be more than 3,000 years old. One individual, discovered in 2012, is estimated to be more than 5,060 years old, making it the...
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  How Do Ocean Currents Affect the Biosphere? Ocean currents are streams of water in the ocean whose circulation is produced by gravity, wind friction, and water density variations. The biosphere (the relatively thin life-supporting layer at or near Earth’s surface) is influenced by ocean currents in several ways. Currents transport seeds,...
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  Why Do Our Noses Have Two Nostrils? When it comes to eyes and ears, pairs make sense. Paired eyes give us stereo vision, which allows us to see objects in depth, and paired ears give us stereo hearing, which allows us to detect the direction a sound is coming from. The reason for paired nostrils, however, is a little less obvious....
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  How Does the U.S. Government Define the Difference Between a Protest and a Riot? Generally speaking, a protest in the sense relevant here is “a usually organized public demonstration of disapproval” (of some law, policy, idea, or state of affairs), while a riot is “a disturbance of the peace created by an assemblage of usually three or more people acting with a common purpose...
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  Inventions that Helped Shape How We Interact with Knowledge and Information Over the course of human history, a variety of novel inventions have helped facilitate and advance the dissemination of knowledge across the world. Those outlined in the list below are some of the most important. Spotlight, inventions, knowledge, history of knowledge, knowledge keeping, knowledge...
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  How is the U.S. Unemployment Rate Calculated? This article was originally published on May 1, 2020. In general, the unemployment rate in the United States is obtained by dividing the number of unemployed persons by the number of persons in the labor force (employed or unemployed) and multiplying that figure by 100. There are, however, various...
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  How Do You Balance a Chemical Equation? Balancing chemical equations is a useful skill in chemistry. The basis of chemical reactions is the idea that atoms and molecules frequently recombine into other molecules. Reactants are the substances that enter a chemical reaction, while products are formed as the result of the reaction. Some...
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  Why Is Elvis Called “the King of Rock ’n’ Roll”? “The Hillbilly Cat.” “Elvis the Pelvis.” “The Memphis Flash.” The renowned singer and dominant performer Elvis Presley has had no shortage of nicknames, but his most memorable moniker is also his grandest: “the King of Rock ’n’ Roll,” or simply “the King.” Although its exact debut is unknown, that...
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  Is Honey Sweeter Than Sugar? For the most part, yes, honey tastes sweeter than table sugar. Both honey and sugar are made up of fructose and glucose, but fructose and glucose are bound together in sugar, a combination called sucrose. The fructose and glucose in honey, on the other hand, are largely independent. Fructose is...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Academia and Ideas) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  Why Do Animals Have Tails? There are numerous reasons why many animals have a tail. One answer is that a tail of some kind has helped different kinds of animals—whether an insect, a fish, a lizard, or a mammal, among others—survive long enough to reproduce successfully. Invoking natural selection as an answer might seem...
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  How Many People Signed the U.S. Constitution? Of the 70 delegates chosen as representatives to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, only 55 actually attended the proceedings in Philadelphia, and it is believed that there were never more than 46 of them in attendance at any one time. When it came time to affix their signatures to the...
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  What Are the Biological Effects of Marijuana Use? The biological effects of marijuana vary, depending on the strength and amount consumed and depending on how and why it is used. Psychological effects, such as mild euphoria and alterations in vision and judgment, are common, regardless of whether marijuana is taken for recreational or medical...
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  Why Do Horses Sleep Standing Up? Some consider this a trick question. That’s because horses actually doze while on their feet and lie down for REM sleep. So, the better question is: Why do horses nap while standing? Mainly because sleeping while lying down can be dangerous. It takes a bit of work for horses to get up, which makes...
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  What If the President Is Impeached? Impeachment proceedings begin when the president is accused of “Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors” (U.S. Constitution, Article II, section 4). The House of Representatives votes on articles of impeachment, or formal charges of misconduct. If approved by a majority of members,...
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  The Time Albert Einstein Was Asked to be President of Israel Famous Jewish scientist Albert Einstein is well known for his discoveries in theoretical physics. But did you know he also had the opportunity to enter the political world? Following the death of Israel’s first president, Chaim Weizmann, in 1952, the Israeli government, headed by Prime Minister...
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  Are Dogs Smarter than Cats? The ongoing quarrel about whether dogs or cats are smarter has divided pet lovers throughout history—and scientific research has provided fuel for the debate. Some studies suggest biological differences in intelligence between cats and dogs. Research reveals that the cerebral cortex, the layer of...
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  When Was the Periodic Table Invented? The periodic table was invented by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. However, prior to Mendeleev, chemists had been pondering for decades how to classify the elements. Beginning in 1789, Antoine Lavoisier began classifying elements by their properties. Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner showed in...
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  Poker Hands Ranked Poker can be a fun game between friends or a professional competition. No matter where you’re playing, here’s a handy cheat sheet to help you remember which hands are best and what beats what. A poker hand comprises five cards. The value of the hand is in inverse proportion to its mathematical...
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  Did Lucille Times Boycott Buses Before Rosa Parks? On December 1, 1955, 42-year-old Rosa Parks, an African American woman, refused to surrender her seat to a white passenger on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in defiance of the law. Today Parks’s act of resistance—as well as the subsequent boycott—persists as one of the key moments of the civil...
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  What Is a Cashless Society and How Does It Work? A cashless society is one in which cash, in the form of physical banknotes and coins, is not accepted in any financial transaction. Instead, people and businesses transfer money to one another digitally—via credit or debit cards, electronic money transfers, cryptocurrency, or online and mobile...
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  Did Joseph McCarthy cause the Red Scare of the 1950s? Joseph McCarthy was a junior Republican senator from Wisconsin still in his first term when he delivered the incendiary Lincoln Day speech that rocketed him to political stardom. Tensions between the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union had been at a rolling boil since the end of...
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  Can Anything Break if You Hit It Hard Enough? If you hit it with enough force, or hit it in just the right way, almost anything can break—that is, separate into pieces. Even the hardest materials we know of—including diamonds, wurtzite, boron nitride, moissanite, and corundum—can be fractured. For instance, it’s possible to shatter a diamond...
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  Why Are Some Metals More Conductive than Others? All metals can conduct heat and electric current, but some are more effective conductors than others. What are some factors that influence a metal’s electrical conductivity? Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively simple crystal structure distinguished by a...
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  Why Is the Salvator Mundi Called the World’s Most Controversial Painting? Plenty of paintings have been called the “most controversial,” and the Salvator Mundi (produced after 1500; “Savior of the World”) is only the latest to be given that title. After the artwork sold as a previously lost Leonardo da Vinci in 2017 for $450.3 million—the highest price paid for a work of...
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  How Do Scientists Predict Tsunamis After Earthquakes? Earthquakes, landslides, volcanic eruptions, and even meteoroid and comet strikes can produce tsunamis—trains of waves that extend over the ocean’s surface in ever-widening circles, much like the waves produced by a pebble falling into a shallow pool. When these waves reach shallow water, friction...
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  What Is Earth’s Velocity? Earth has several velocities. There is the velocity with which it rotates on its axis. A point on Earth’s Equator moves with a velocity of 465.1 meters per second, or 1,674 kilometers per hour. The velocity of a point not at the Equator can be found by multiplying 465.1 meters per second by the...
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  How Many Electoral College Votes Does Each U.S. State Have? This infographic provides a list of the electoral college votes per state (including the District of Columbia), from most to least. The data are listed below. Spotlight, infographic, electoral college, United States, U.S. presidency, U.S. presidential election, votes,...
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  What Is Mid-Century Modern Design? The term “mid-century modern” is often said to have been coined by author Cara Greenberg for the title of her 1984 book Mid-Century Modern: Furniture of the 1950s. The phrase, however, was used before then—though sporadically—to describe the furniture and architecture of the mid-20th century....
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  The 20 Under 40 Series: Young Shapers of the Future The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  Why Is Predicting the Weather So Difficult for Meteorologists? Simply stated, predicting the future is hard work, and meteorologists should never be expected to get things exactly right everywhere at once, but they often get close. Since ancient times, weather prediction has used observations to forecast changes. For many generations, almanacs that contained...
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  Why Is Charles I Buried with Henry VIII and Jane Seymour? In St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle, an innocuous marble floor tile hides more than the building’s foundation. Four oddly matched royals are buried beneath: King Henry VIII, Jane Seymour, King Charles I, and an infant child of Queen Anne. Originally, the vault was intended as only a temporary...
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  Gender Pay Gap Across the United States The infographic contains a bar graph showing what a woman in each U.S. state, Washington, D.C., and the country as a whole loses in average pay over a 40-year career, based on the 2020 wage gap—the difference between the average wages or salaries of men and those of women. The graph is ordered from...
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  Timeline of the 2000s In a discussion of potential names for the 2000s, American author and journalist Walter Isaacson suggested the “Decade of Disruptions,” a reference to a series of particularly turbulent events. On September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked the United States, sparking lengthy wars in Afghanistan and...
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  Timeline of the Sinking of the USS Indianapolis On July 30, 1945, just days after delivering components of the atomic bombs that were later dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, the USS Indianapolis was sunk by a Japanese submarine. Of the nearly 1,200 crewmen on board, some 900 initially survived. Their ordeal, however, was just starting....
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  What Are the Different Types of Pollution? Pollution can be described as a nutrient or substance that is out of place. More specifically, however, it is the addition of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or any form of energy (such as heat, sound, or radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than it can be dispersed, diluted,...
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  How and Where Coral Bleaching Is Affecting the Great Barrier Reef The Great Barrier Reef is one of Earth’s most magnificent natural monuments. This complex of coral reefs, shoals, and islets in the Pacific Ocean off Australia’s northeastern coast stretches for more than 1,250 miles, or 2,000 kilometers, over an area of some 135,000 square miles, or 350,000 square...
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  Casualties from the Battle of Midway This infographic helps with visualizing casualties from the Battle of Midway, which took place June 3–6, 1942, in the Pacific Ocean during World War II between naval forces of the United States and Japan. It presents Japanese losses in ships, aircraft, and men side by side with U.S. losses....
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Social Activism and Politics) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  Facts and Statistics about the Normandy Invasion The Normandy Invasion, also called Operation Overlord or D-Day, was the Allied invasion of western Europe during World War II, which was launched on June 6, 1944 (the most celebrated D-Day of the war), with the simultaneous landing of U.S., British, and Canadian forces on five separate beachheads...
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  Atomic Bombing of Nagasaki: Infographic This infographic describes the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, one of the two attacks by the United States on Japan at the end of World War II that resulted in Japan’s surrender. These attacks were the first use of atomic weapons in war. A description of this infographic appears below. The atomic...
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  How the Normandy Invasion Happened: Infographic Overview This infographic provides an overview of the Normandy Invasion, also called Operation Overlord or D-Day, which was launched on June 6, 1944, during World War II. The largest seaborne invasion ever, the operation involved the simultaneous landing of U.S., British, and Canadian forces on five...
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  History of Women in the U.S. Congress This infographic highlights 10 Congresses that are notable in the history of women’s fight for equal representation in the United States. Spotlight, women, U.S. Congress, Senate, House of Representatives, Nineteenth Amendment, Nancy Pelosi, elections, gender parity, Jeanette Rankin, Rebecca Latimer...
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  Timeline of the Apollo Space Missions Apollo was a project conducted by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the 1960s and 1970s that landed the first humans on the Moon. Spotlight, Apollo, John F. Kennedy, NASA, space program, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Jim Lovell, Moon, Apollo 13 On May 25, 1961, U.S....
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  Attack on Pearl Harbor Timeline This infographic concerns the Japanese attack of December 7, 1941, on Pearl Harbor, the base of the U.S. Navy’s Pacific Fleet, on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Below a large frontal image of a Japanese military aircraft, flanked by small U.S. and Japanese flags, the infographic displays a quotation...
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  How Do the Symptoms of COVID-19 Differ from Those of Cold and Flu? October marks the start of cold and flu season in the Northern Hemisphere, where, in 2020, many countries also have been heavily affected by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). But cold, flu, and COVID-19 are all contagious respiratory diseases, so how can those who become ill tell if what they...
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  Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima: Infographic This infographic describes the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, one of the two attacks by the United States on Japan at the end of World War II that resulted in Japan’s surrender. These attacks were the first use of atomic weapons in war. A description of this infographic appears below. Hiroshima is a...
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  Timeline of Climate Change This infographic presents a timeline of climate change. A detailed description of this infographic appears below. Climate change happens across a range of time scales from hours to eons. However, since the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, human beings and their activities have emerged as...
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  Water Scarcity Facts and Statistics Water scarcity results from insufficient available freshwater resources to meet the human and environmental demands of a given area. Spotlight, water, drought, global warming, climate change, population growth, conservation, water shortage Types of water scarcity include economic and physical or...
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  Incredible Facts About Bees Did you know that there are more than 20,000 species of bees in the world? Unlike the iconic honeybee, most bees do not live in hives, make honey, or even sting! Learn more about these diverse and amazing buzzing beauties. Companion, bee, bees, honeybees, bumblebees, biodiversity, conservation,...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Science and Technology) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner. And if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  The World Science Festival’s Pioneers in Science The World Science Festival highlights the amazing accomplishments of scientists from around the world through its Pioneers in Science program. Watch these videos provided to Britannica by the festival and read original biographies by Britannica authors to find out more about these scientists’...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Grasshopper and a Cricket? Grasshoppers and crickets can look pretty similar at first glance, especially given their enormous hind legs, which they both use for jumping. They differ in quite a number of ways, though—which is reflected in the fact that they’re actually somewhat distant cousins. One of the most noticeable...
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  Timeline of the Space Race, 1957–69 This infographic presents a timeline of space-related achievements by the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. between 1957 and 1969. A description of the timeline is below. On October 4, 1957, the U.S.S.R. launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. On November 3, 1957, the U.S.S.R. placed the first...
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  Selma March Timeline This infographic presents a timeline and maps concerning the civil rights march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, in March 1965. At the time, Selma was the center of an African American voter-registration drive led by Martin Luther King, Jr. Local violence against civil rights...
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  The Birth of Beatlemania: Observing a Fifty-Year (1963–2013) Milestone This essay was originally published in the Britannica Book of the Year for 2013. It was subsequently updated. The year 2013 marked the 50th anniversary of the year that the Beatles emerged from being the object of affection of a few hundred teenagers in a provincial English town to becoming a...
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  Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19 Chart This infographic explains what influenza and pandemics are and how the influenza pandemic of 1918–19 spread. That pandemic was the most severe influenza outbreak of the 20th century and, in total number of deaths, among the most devastating pandemics in history. The infographic uses graphs to...
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  The New Space Race In the first decades of the 21st century, a new space race emerged between India, China, and Japan. This infographic presents a map showing where the missions went or are planned to go and a timeline of past and future missions. Spotlight, new space race, infographic, Earth, Mars, Moon, asteroid,...
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  Sinking of the Lusitania Timeline This infographic presents a timeline, a map, images, and facts and figures concerning the sinking of the RMS Lusitania. The Lusitania was a British ocean liner owned by the Cunard Line that was built to compete for the highly lucrative transatlantic passenger trade. On May 7, 1915, the ocean liner...
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  Is There a Cure for HIV Infection? No, there is no cure yet for infection with HIV, or human immunodeficiency virus. In fact, despite multiple reports of individuals having been cured of HIV infection, the virus has been eliminated from only one or two people thus far. One of these individuals, Timothy Ray Brown, underwent intensive...
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  How Were Viruses Discovered? Scientific understanding of viruses emerged in the 1890s, with the work of Russian microbiologist Dmitry I. Ivanovsky (1892) and Dutch microbiologist and botanist Martinus W. Beijerinck (1898). Both scientists were studying a disease of tobacco plants. Ivanovsky used a filtering method for...
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  Why Are Two Political Parties Dominant in the U.S.? Two parties dominate the U.S. political system in large part because the U.S. system of representation is based on the top vote getter in each district. Multiparty democracies typically use a system in which representation is proportional to the number of votes received. The U.S. system leaves...
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  Why Do We Celebrate Birthdays? Annual celebrations and commemorations came about with the invention of the calendar. Not much is known about the first birthday celebrations in history, in part because they are very ancient. The earliest ones we know about were for nobles, in which the celebration played a performative social...
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  What Are Matrices Used For? A matrix is a set of numbers arranged in rows and columns so as to form a compact rectangular array. It contains a set of specific elements, often numbers or equations. The values of each element depend on the nature of the application (such as population data, the price of a purchased good, power...
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  What Was the First Book Ever Written? The earliest surviving written literature is from ancient Mesopotamia. The Epic of Gilgamesh is often cited as the first great composition, although some shorter compositions have survived that are even earlier (notably the “Kesh Temple Hymn” and “The Instructions of Shuruppak”). Apart from its...
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  What Is Cultural Appropriation? You hear about it on Twitter, in news headlines, and at Thanksgiving dinner. But what is cultural appropriation, anyway? It’s not a concept designed to trick you. Taking off in the 1980s, the term cultural appropriation was first used in academic spaces to discuss issues such as colonialism and the...
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  Navajo Code Talkers Infographic The Navajo code talkers were Native American men serving as U.S. Marines in the Pacific theater of World War II who used their native language to foil the Japanese military’s monitoring of vital communications. By maintaining crucial radio contact on the battlefield, they played an important role...
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  The Great War Infographic of Deaths and Milestones The infographic presents an overview of World War I, also called the Great War, which lasted from 1914 to 1918. As the main map shows, this international conflict embroiled most of Europe along with the Middle East and other regions around the world. It pitted the Central Powers—mainly Germany,...
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  Why Do People Eat Cereal with Milk? According to what seems to have become a somewhat standardized history, the collision of milk and cereal dates to about the 1860s (or perhaps the 1870s), when a breakfast cereal predecessor called granula came into being. Eating granula dry, as Mental Floss succinctly describes it, “was like trying...
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  Types of Landing Craft of World War II Infographic During World War II, Allied forces employed a variety of landing craft—relatively small naval vessels used primarily to deploy troops, equipment, vehicles, and supplies from ship to shore for offensive operations. Such vessels are perhaps best known for their role in the Normandy Invasion (the most...
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  Why Is Puerto Rico’s Political Status So Complicated? In 2018 petitioners addressing the United Nations (UN) Special Committee on Decolonization described the United States’ relationship with Puerto Rico, according to a UN report, “as one of genocide and ‘economic terrorism,’ characterized by multinational corporations—facilitated by the United...
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  Timeline and Map of the Panama Canal The Panama Canal, which was completed in 1914, connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and significantly shortens some shipping routes by allowing vessels to bypass South America. This infographic provides a timeline and map of the Panama Canal along with a number of interesting facts. Spotlight,...
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  How Do Chameleons Change Colour? Chameleons change colour by dispersing or concentrating pigment granules (melanophore cells) in the cells that contain them. In general, the animal appears lighter-coloured when pigment is concentrated and dark when pigment is dispersed throughout the cells. The chameleon’s colour state at any...
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  6 Questions for Tidying Expert Marie Kondo Marie Kondo has displayed a passion for organizing spaces since childhood. She was born in Tokyo on October 9, 1984, and, when at school, she volunteered to tidy up books and classroom equipment while other students played. At age 19, while studying sociology at Tokyo Woman’s Christian University,...
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  The Great Moon Hoax of 1835 Was Sci-Fi Passed Off as News So reads part of the first installment of what would later be called the Great Moon Hoax. The series of six articles, which New York City’s daily newspaper The Sun began to publish on August 25, 1835, purported to describe research of real-life English astronomer Sir John Herschel (son of Sir...
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  How Does the Olympic Torch Stay Lit? In 2000 the Olympic torch spent three minutes submerged in the Coral Sea. In 2008 climbers carried it to the summit of Mount Everest. In 2016 in Brazil the torch took a ride on a surfboard. In none of those occasions did its flame go out. But how? To find out, we have to go back to the tradition’s...
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  How Much Water Should a Person Drink in a Day? The popular recommendation to drink 8 cups of water every day isn’t as definitive as it may seem. The amount of water one should drink depends on a number of factors, including age, biological sex, and activity level. On average, women need to consume about 11 cups (2.7 liters) of water (the U.S....
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  How Is BMI Calculated? BMI stands for “body mass index” and is an estimate of total body fat. BMI does not measure body fat directly, but it does help determine whether a person is clinically underweight or obese. The formula to calculate BMI is as follows: weight (kg) / [height (m)]2 = BMI For adults over age 20, a BMI...
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  The Plot to Assassinate George Washington The history of the United States would not be the same without George Washington. During the American Revolution he was commander in chief of the American colonies’ military. He was the first president of the United States and set the precedent for a peaceful transition of power. His face is on...
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  How Was Instant Ramen Invented? Instant ramen was invented by Momofuku Ando in 1958. In his biography, “The Story of the Invention of Instant Ramen” (2002), Ando recalls walking through the streets of Ōsaka after the end of World War II and seeing a long line of people shivering in the cold, waiting for a bowl of ramen. Food...
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  How Does Bluetooth Work? You get that important call you’ve been waiting for, and you scramble for earphones in your bag. You groan as you find them, wires all a-tangle like yesterday’s spaghetti. And then, when you try to transfer photos from the phone to your computer, you can’t find that elusive USB cable in your desk....
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  A Guide to LGBTQ+ Pride Flags The LGBTQ+ community is large and varied, encompassing a range of sexual orientations and gender identities. Many of these identity groups express their pride through the use of colorful flags. You may be familiar with the rainbow flag that represents the group as a whole, but what follows is a...
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  What Was Life Like Before We Knew About Germs? “It was the summer of 1880. It was August. It stank to high heaven. The sewers had been uncorked, and all the filth came out in a flood. All manner of waste was on display.” So reads an article in the French daily newspaper Le Figaro. Purporting to be written by novelist and critic Émile Zola...
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  Why Do Wet Dogs Have A Wet Dog Smell? According to the American Kennel Club, "wet dog smell" is not due to the dog itself but to the yeast and bacteria that live in dog fur. These microorganisms regularly release volatile compounds as they live out their lives on our canine pets, but we don’t usually smell those compounds beyond the...
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  Is Body Language Universal? A wave. A thumbs-up. A middle finger. You may think you know what these common gestures signify…but what happens when you wave to your European friend across the street and she turns to walk the other way? There’s a reason for that reaction, and it isn’t because your friend is tired of your...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Music and Dance) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  Why Did Adult Humans Start Drinking Milk? Most adult humans around the world are lactose-intolerant, meaning that, once they were weaned from breast milk, they gradually lost the ability to consume animal milk and certain other dairy products without having digestive problems. However, the majority of people of European descent, especially...
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  How the 1815 Eruption of Mount Tambora Produced the “Year Without a Summer” Mount Tambora is a stratovolcano and forms the entire 37.3-mile- (60-km-) wide Sanggar peninsula on Sumbawa island, Indonesia. Its eruption in April of 1815 is the largest observed eruption in recorded history. It measured a 7 on the volcanic explosivity index (VEI). Plumes from the eruption of...
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  Why are cicadas so noisy? Ah, summer. In many parts of the world, summer is the time of year when the cicadas are buzzing so loudly that you can hardly hear yourself think. Amid the din, two thoughts come to mind: Why are the cicadas carrying on so loudly? And how on earth are they able to achieve such an ear-shattering...
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  When Was the Last Pandemic? This article was originally published on March 19, 2020. The last major global outbreak of disease before the COVID-19 pandemic declared in 2020 was the influenza pandemic (H1N1) of 2009. The H1N1 outbreak was the first pandemic of the 21st century. The disease was initially detected in February...
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  Why Is It Important to Know the Incubation Period of a Disease? This article was originally published on March 19, 2020. Knowing the incubation period of an infectious disease—the time from exposure to the causative agent to when symptoms first appear—can provide important information during an outbreak, including when infected individuals will be symptomatic...
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  Is There a Cure for Coronavirus? At the moment, there is no cure for infection with the coronavirus behind the COVID-19 pandemic. However, different types of drugs are being tested in human patients for their ability to fight off infection or to reduce the severity of disease. Examples include an antiviral known as remdesivir, a...
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  7 Questions for Astronaut Jessica Meir Jessica Meir made history on October 18, 2019, when she and fellow astronaut Christina Koch made the first all-woman space walk. For more than seven hours they worked outside the International Space Station (ISS) to replace a power unit. Meir and Koch went on to make two more space walks together,...
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  How Did Alexander the Great Really Die? Today we know all about what happens to our bodies after we die. Changes begin immediately after death, beginning with the body temperature cooling. Within a few hours the movement of damaged blood cells causes discolouration in the skin; in the same time frame rigor mortis sets in, making the body...
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  What Is the History of Juneteenth? On January 1, 1863, in the midst of the Civil War, United States President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. The document ostensibly freed all enslaved people in the Confederacy, the former U.S. states that had taken the election of an antislavery president as reason to secede...
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  How Is a Vaccine Approved for Use? Vaccines play an essential role in disease prevention, helping minimize the spread of contagious illness and saving countless lives. Before vaccines ever gain widespread use in humans, however, they undergo years of research and development, with multiple rounds of clinical testing, to ensure that...
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  Did Humans Live at the Same Time as Dinosaurs? TV shows such as The Flintstones depict humans and dinosaurs living together in harmony. But that’s just fiction, right? Actually, not quite. The dinosaurs the earliest humans lived among were not the huge lumbering lizards we most commonly think of when we see the word. Those had been extinct for...
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  Timeline of the Dunkirk Evacuation The evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) and other Allied troops from the French seaport of Dunkirk (Dunkerque) to England. Operation Dynamo used hundreds of naval vessels and civilian boats in the evacuation. Map description: Map showing far northeastern France and Belgium and far...
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  How the First Surviving Quintuplets Became a Tourist Attraction On May 28, 1934, a miracle happened. In a modest farmhouse in Corbeil, Ontario, Canada, parents Oliva and Elzire Dionne welcomed five additions to their family: Yvonne, Annette, Cécile, Émilie, and Marie. Soon they would become the first known set of quintuplets to survive infancy. Their novelty...
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  How Do Monkeys and Apes Trim Their Fingernails? Have you ever seen a monkey getting a manicure? Though that line sounds like the beginning of a bad joke, it actually has some scientific merit. Monkeys and apes are primates, an order of mammals that have forward-facing eyes, large brains compared with their body weight, and—where other mammals...
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  Why Do Some Cicadas Appear Only Every 17 Years? You already know why cicadas are so unbelievably noisy. But why do some of them appear aboveground only every 17 years? The 17-year cicadas are species of periodical cicadas, a group of hemipterans with the longest known insect life cycle. The largest brood makes its appearance every 17 years, like...
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  How Do Countries Choose Their Capital Cities? London, England. Tokyo, Japan. Buenos Aires, Argentina. They all make our lists of places to visit, and they’re also national capitals—each city being the seat of its country’s government. But how are capital cities chosen, anyway? Location is often key. Many countries choose a geographically...
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  Why Did We Start Wearing Makeup? Here’s a question for makeup users and nonusers alike: Would you believe that philosophers once determined makeup trends? What about poets? To understand the origin of makeup, we must travel back in time about 6,000 years. We get our first glimpse of cosmetics in ancient Egypt, where makeup served...
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  Do Sharks Really Die if They Stop Swimming? It’s a widespread belief: If sharks stop swimming, they die. But is that actually true? Let’s find out. If you look at the nurse shark and the tiger shark, this belief is already proven false: these, and a few other shark species, can stop swimming whenever they want. They breathe by way of buccal...
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  Why Is Women’s History Month Celebrated in March? Each March, Americans celebrate National Women’s History Month: a chance to recognize women’s varied, and often under-recognized, accomplishments throughout history. It is celebrated with television specials, political speeches, classroom learning initiatives, and (more recently) social media posts...
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  The First Atomic Bombs Tested and Used During World War II This infographic explains how the U.S. government created, tested, and used the first atomic bombs during the 1940s. The following text provides a detailed description of the infographic. The first atomic bomb was built in Los Alamos, New Mexico, during World War II under a top secret U.S....
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  What Is the Difference Between a Meteotsunami, a Seiche, and a Storm Surge? A meteotsunami is a large sea wave, with a wave height of two metres (about 6 feet) or more. Unlike seismic tsunamis, which are larger and produced by earthquakes, landslides, and strikes by meteorites or comets, meteotsunamis are generated by sudden changes in atmospheric pressure, such as during...
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  Infographic: Spacecraft of the Apollo Program This infographic explains the spacecraft of the Apollo program. More detailed information and explanations appear below. Spotlight, infographic, explainer, Apollo program, Saturn V, Command Module, Service Module, Lunar Module, flight path, rocket, Moon, NASA, astronauts, Space Race, Moon landing,...
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  What was Alfred like as a governor of his kingdom? As king of Wessex, Alfred administered his kingdom very efficiently, organizing his finances and precisely measuring services and payments due from tenants of his burghs. The burghs that he had erected and fortified as a defense against Danish attacks were divided into hides, a form of land...
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  4 Questions for Tennis Star Naomi Osaka Tennis star Naomi Osaka is one of the most popular athletes today. Her affable spirit and dominance in major tournaments—she was the first player from Japan to win a Grand Slam singles title and the first Asian player to ascend to the top of the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA) world...
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  What Was Life Like in Japanese American Internment Camps? After the attack on Pearl Harbor by Japanese aircraft on December 7, 1941, the U.S. War Department suspected that Japanese Americans might act as saboteurs or espionage agents, despite a lack of hard evidence to support that view. Out of this fear, on February 19, 1942, U.S. President Franklin D....
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  What were Sir Walter Scott’s influences? Throughout his childhood Sir Walter Scott read extensively in a variety of genres, including poetry, history, drama, and medieval romance. He continued to read widely after he began to study law, and he became interested in German Romanticism and Gothic novels. Above all, however, he was intrigued...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Frog and a Toad? You’re on a walk through the woods when a small brown and green creature hops across your path. Careful not to step on it, you lean down to get a closer look. Did you spot a frog or a toad? Though differentiating between frogs and toads can be difficult, there are a few features that may help you...
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  Citizen Journalists The concept of journalism—the gathering and reporting of news and information for public edification—has changed dramatically in recent decades. Traditional print and broadcast outlets remain, but an explosion of alternative news sources has diminished their influence. Among the most important new...
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  How was Ulysses S. Grant involved in the Civil War? When American Civil War hostilities broke out in April 1861, Ulysses S. Grant quickly rose up the Union ranks, advancing from recruitment officer to brigadier general by August of that year. In January 1862 he voiced his concerns about his force’s primarily defensive role and received permission...
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  What was Ulysses S. Grant’s relationship with the Lakota Indians? Ulysses S. Grant became president of the United States less than a year after the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie created, in 1868, what would be an undisturbed reservation for the Lakota Indians in western modern-day South Dakota. Many Lakota moved, but some chiefs chose to live on unceded land. The...
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  From Sport to Spectacle: The Evolution of the Super Bowl The Super Bowl began with the 1966–67 season, the first being played on January 15, 1967. Super Bowl staples—such as pregame shows, opening ceremonies, half-time entertainment spectacles, and other traditions—which once had humble beginnings, now come close to rivaling the game itself for the...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Health and Medicine) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Literature) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  From Sport to Spectacle: The History of the Super Bowl This infographic provides a brief history of the Super Bowl. A detailed description follows. Spotlight, Super Bowl, NFL, National Football League, AFC, NFC, championship, gridiron, New England Patriots, Pittsburgh Steelers, host cities, Buffalo Bills The Super Bowl has taken place in 19 different...
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  Do Hyenas Really Laugh? The spotted, or laughing, hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is a ruthless scavenger and killer, burglarizing food stores, stealing livestock, consuming wastes, and occasionally even killing people. While this behavior has earned the spotted hyena a reputation, it may be even better known for the...
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  Which Animal Is the Smartest? Strictly speaking, humans are the smartest animals on Earth—at least according to human standards. We are adept at all the tasks we’ve established as intelligence indicators, and we have used our smarts to do everything from improving our quality of life as a species and building great societies to...
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  Roman Catholic Saints In Roman Catholicism and certain other Christian faith traditions, a saint is a holy person who is known for his or her “heroic sanctity” and who is thought to be in heaven. In the 10th century, Pope John XV formalized a process for the identification of saints. Before that time, saints were...
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  Why Is Grass Green? Grass is green because of the presence of chlorophyll throughout the leaves and stems. Chlorophyll is a pigment that allows plants to capture energy from the Sun in order to power the process of photosynthesis. Given that most grasses lack trunks or woody stems like trees or shrubs, their...
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  Why Do People Say “Amen” at the End of a Prayer? According to Merriam-Webster, the interjection amen is "used to express solemn ratification (as of an expression of faith) or hearty approval (as of an assertion)." It is often interchanged with phrases such as so be it. The original word in Hebrew bears relation to other words denoting security...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Business and Entrepreneurship) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Education) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  20 Under 40: Young Shapers of the Future (Film and Visual Arts) The future is unwritten. It is also right around the corner, and, if, as science fiction author William Gibson noted, it is not evenly distributed, more and more young people around the world are reaching toward it to shape it, improve it, and make it more equitable. These “shapers of the future”...
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  Which Religion Is the Oldest? Adherents hold that Hinduism—one of the principal faiths in the modern world, with about one billion followers—is the world’s oldest religion, with complete scriptural texts dating back 3,000 years. The oral tradition that gave rise to the Mahabharata, for example, probably dates to about 850 BCE,...
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  What Did We Call America’s Elite Before the “1 Percent”? Astor. Rockefeller. Kennedy. Bezos. In 2011 the Occupy Wall Street protest movement spread the term 1 percent in reference to America’s richest people. At the time, 1 percent of the population controlled about 30 percent of the country’s wealth. But Occupy was no more the origin of American class...
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  What Did It Look Like for a U.S. President to Condemn Racism in 1921? Warren G. Harding was hardly a people’s president. Handpicked by the Republican Party as an inoffensive alternative to the erratic tenure of Woodrow Wilson (and as a likely candidate to win Ohio, his home state), Harding was the first to admit his own shortcomings: he once called himself “a man of...
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  What Is a Superspreader Event? The COVID-19 pandemic has caused various scientific terms to become a part of everyday vocabulary, among them the term “superspreader event.” But what exactly is a superspreader event, and how does it affect the spread of infectious disease? In the realm of infectious disease, a superspreader event...
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  Why Does the United States Have More Tornadoes than Any Other Country? The United States experiences the most tornadoes of any country in the world: more than 1,000 per year have been reported every year since 1990 in the U.S. This high count of twisters results primarily from the country’s topography, which features a large central core with relatively flat terrain....
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  What Happens to Our Bodies After We Die? What happens to our bodies after we die isn’t a mystery, even if we may want it to be. If you want to confront the physical changes that take place, read on. The first visible change to the body—occurring 15 to 20 minutes after death—is pallor mortis, in which the body begins to pale. Pallor mortis...
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  What Happened at the Rock Springs Massacre? Gunshots rang out on the afternoon of September 2, 1885, in Rock Springs, Wyoming Territory. Home to hundreds of Chinese coal miners who had come to the United States for work, the settlement’s Chinatown was facing impending bloodshed. After a morning of violence against Chinese workers in one of...
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  What Are Some Notable Examples of Film Adaptations of Romeo and Juliet? Regardless of whether you’ve committed to a close reading of the actual text of William Shakespeare’s play, you very likely think of Romeo and Juliet as the representative story of star-crossed love. A common fixation on the passion between Romeo and Juliet—almost separate from their tragic,...
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  Do the Relics of Saint Nicholas Really Emit a Holy Substance? Saint Nicholas is a popular saint among Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians, distinguished for his magnanimity in his lifetime and for his purported ability to perform miracles for those in need. His reputation partially inspired the development of a similarly generous patron figure of...
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  Why Is the Platypus a Mammal? When 18th-century zoologist George Shaw published the first scientific description of a platypus, many of his contemporaries did not believe that the animal was real. Shaw himself had initially believed the specimen to be a hoax consisting of body parts from different animals, sewn together to...
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  Did a Calendar Change Cause Riots in England? Imagine that you are a member of Britain’s House of Lords. The date is February 25, 1750—in Britain, at least. In most of continental Europe, the year is 1751. A bit confused? The year is 1751 according to the Gregorian calendar, but Protestant Britain chose to stick with the older Julian calendar...
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  Why Have There Been Plans to Build a New Colossus of Rhodes? The Colossus of Rhodes graced the main harbour of the ancient city of Rhodes, both as a monument to the sun god Helios, the patron of the island of Rhodes, and as a testament to the city’s independence after the long siege of Demetrius I Poliorcetes. But the mighty statue, standing 105 feet (32...
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  Did Anyone Really Think the Titanic was Unsinkable? You probably know the story of the great irony of the Titanic. The ship hailed as “unsinkable” sank after it struck an iceberg on its very first trip across the Atlantic Ocean. In hindsight, it seems almost silly that anyone would assume that a ship weighing more than 50,000 tons (when fully laden)...
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  What Happens When You Swallow Gum? Your parents may have warned you not to swallow your chewing gum because it would remain in your stomach for seven years. Could this possibly be true? Chewing gum consists of a gum base and flavorings, including sweeteners. It is true that the gum base (made from synthetic chicle and similar...
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  Is the Oedipus Complex Real? Born in 1903, four-year-old Herbert Graf witnessed the collapse of a horse who had been pulling a heavy cart. It was a traumatic experience for the boy, who subsequently developed a fear of horses. Additionally, Herbert’s father noted that he developed particular anxieties: Herbert felt uneasy...
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  How Did the World Learn About Emmett Till’s Murder? On August 31, 1955, the body of Emmett Till was found at the bottom of the Tallahatchie River in northern Mississippi. Beaten to a pulp and with his eye gouged out, his face was disfigured almost beyond recognition. His great-uncle Moses Wright may have only recognized him because the 14-year-old...
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  Where Do Antisemitic Conspiracy Theories About the Rothschild Family Come From? The Rothschild family is arguably the most famous European banking dynasty in modern history. In the late 18th century, Mayer Amschel Rothschild, the family patriarch, founded his first banking house in the German town of Frankfurt. His sons expanded the bank into a multinational enterprise, and,...
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  Why Is the Statue of Liberty a Woman? The Statue of Liberty is one of the most recognizable statues in the United States. It is often seen as a symbol of freedom and justice, core principles in the United States’ Declaration of Independence from the British Empire in 1776. But why did sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi choose to make...
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  What Was Frederick Douglass’s Position on Women’s Rights? In the aftermath of the American Civil War and at the beginnings of the Reconstruction period, communities of abolitionists readily took up the cause of universal suffrage and called for enfranchisement irrespective of race or gender. Frederick Douglass was one such prominent abolitionist and...
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  What Was Dr. Dre’s Role in Creating the Subgenre of G-Funk? If gangsta rap was the prevailing subgenre of hip-hop from the late 1980s into the 1990s, “G-funk” (“G” as in “Gangsta”) was its even more uniquely West Coast offspring. The G-funk production style has been considered a sub-subgenre of hip-hop. Characterized most distinctly by the sampling of 1970s...
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  How Many People Actually Got Lobotomized? Today lobotomy is a horror story. Less than a century ago it was a revolutionary “fix” for misunderstood mental health problems. The first lobotomies were performed in the late 1880s by Swiss physician Gottlieb Burkhardt, a supervisor of an asylum looking for ways to subdue overactive patients....
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  Are Chimpanzees Cannibals? For years, no one knew why female chimpanzees prefer to give birth alone. Chimpanzee births in the wild are rarely spotted by researchers, largely because expectant mothers often take a “maternity leave” from their family unit, hiding away by themselves until their child is born. On December 2,...
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  Is Sinclair Lewis’s Most Famous Work Any Good? One critique of Sinclair Lewis’s It Can’t Happen Here is its lack of subtlety. Lewis’s novel, published in 1935, dramatizes the possibility of a fascist takeover of the United States. It likely builds on the research and experiences of Lewis’s second wife, Dorothy Thompson; Thompson was the first...
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  What was the importance of literacy and learning to Alfred’s rule? Alfred’s avid dedication to learning defined the years of his reign as king of Wessex following his victory at Edington in 878, after which he sought to improve his own knowledge and promote educational reform in his kingdom. Although he had displayed a desire for learning in his youth, he was...
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  How Did the Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day Start? Catherine de’ Medici might say that the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew’s Day was never intended to happen. After all, she was originally involved in a plan to kill only one person, not thousands. The start of the massacre can be traced to familial, and religious, origins. King Charles IX of France...
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  Who Was the Woman Behind the Statue of Liberty? The Statue of Liberty is one of the most iconic sculptures in the Western world and is often seen as a symbol of American freedom. Designed and sculpted by French sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, France donated this colossal statue to the United States in 1875 to commemorate their alliance...
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  Do Mongooses Make Good Pets? Mongooses are unlikely to rank anywhere on lists of the most popular or lowest-maintenance pets because, frankly, they are not common pets. (According to a 2016 survey of 27,000 online consumers in 22 countries, dogs have the distinction of being the world’s most popular pets.) While mongooses are...
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  Is Light Pollution Really Pollution? When we think of pollution, we usually think of chemicals introduced into places where they shouldn’t be: fertilizer and pesticide runoff, diesel fumes, plastic debris along roadsides, and carbon dioxide from industry and transportation. Pollution is often described as the addition of any substance...
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  Why Do Brides Wear White? In many societies the color white has long been associated with purity and virtue, and that is one reason why some brides choose to wear white, especially in the West. More often than not, though, you will hear claims that brides wear white because “it’s tradition.” But, historically, white was not...
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  What jobs did Sir Walter Scott have? In addition to the time he spent writing, Sir Walter Scott had a variety of occupations during his lifetime. He was appointed sheriff depute to the county of Selkirk in his late 20s, and he was also a partner in a printing firm owned by the Ballantyne brothers. This partnership led to financial...
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  What did Sir Walter Scott write? Sir Walter Scott’s early work consisted of poetic romances such as The Lady of the Lake (1810). He later wrote The Waverley Novels, a series of historical novels published anonymously between 1814 and 1832 that were popular in his day. The earlier books are set in Scotland and demonstrate Scott’s...
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  Is It Safe to Reopen Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic? When it comes to reopening schools during the COVID-19 pandemic, protecting student and teacher health is of utmost importance. Learning in person or virtually amid a pandemic, however, is fraught with all sorts of problems for children—some may be thriving on the extra time with family but...
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  What Is an NFT? An NFT (non-fungible token) is a digital asset that has been authenticated using blockchain technology. Digital assets are intangible objects that live on the Internet, including videos, GIFs, images, and collages. NFTs allow their makers not only to “sign” digital assets but also to make money...
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  Why Are the Babies of Mammals Cute? Although cuteness can be a matter of personal preference, people tend to find young mammals cute and adorable, and this is likely part of an evolutionary development. Cuteness serves a purpose in species whose young cannot live on their own right away. People are drawn to babies, and it’s their...
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  Is Occam’s Razor Valid? If you wake up in the morning to find your lawn wet, you are probably more likely to attribute the wetness to rain or dew than to a giant sentient ice cube with legs that stomped through your neighborhood, leaving a trail of water in its wake. Although seemingly intuitive, our appreciation for...
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  Will Light-Speed Space Travel Ever Be Possible? The idea of travelling at the speed of light is an attractive one for sci-fi writers. The speed of light is an incredible 299,792,458 meters per second. At that speed, you could circle Earth more than seven times in one second, and humans would finally be able to explore outside our solar system....
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  What Causes Lunar and Solar Eclipses? An eclipse happens when one astronomical body blocks light from or to another. In a lunar eclipse, the Moon moves into the shadow of Earth cast by the Sun. When the Moon passes through the outer part of Earth’s shadow—the penumbra, where the light of the Sun is only partly extinguished—the Moon...
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  What Have We Left on the Moon? In July 1969 Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin made history as the first human beings to land on the Moon’s surface. Five more crewed missions made it to the Moon in the years that followed before the Apollo program ended in 1972. To date, 24 astronauts (all Americans) have visited the Moon, 12 of...
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  The Future of Information and Education For centuries, education has consisted primarily of students sitting before an instructor in a classroom setting, learning via lecture and rote memorization from textbooks. It wasn’t a perfect system, but it served its purpose as a generally effective way to educate the masses. In recent years,...
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  Was Santa Claus a Real Person? For many children living in the United States, especially those who have behaved well all year, the most exciting part of Christmas is the discovery of wrapped packages tucked under the Christmas tree and sweets hidden in stockings hung by the fireplace. Kids are often told that the gifts were left...
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  What’s the Difference Between Monkeys and Apes? Monkeys and apes are both primates, which means they’re both part of the human family tree. As distinguished relatives, we should probably be able to tell them apart. But when you look at a gibbon or a marmoset, how do you know which is a monkey and which is an ape? The quickest way to tell the...
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  How Do You Read Phylogenetic Trees? A phylogenetic tree is a diagram that displays the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. The trees can represent relationships between any related groups, from all life on Earth to specific subspecies of algae. Phylogeny assumes that every organism shares a common ancestor and that all...
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  What Is Known (and Not Known) About the Tunguska Event Rumors, conjecture, and conspiracy theories swirl around the explosion that happened near the Podkamennaya Tunguska River in Siberia, Russia, in 1908. Companion, Tunguska, Siberia, Russia, explosion, astronomy, geology, meteoroid, asteroid, comet,...
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  Why Do We Give Valentine Cards? Of the many Valentine’s Day traditions, one of the most enduring is the classroom card exchange. Each year, typically, elementary school children choose a box of valentines featuring their latest favorite superhero, princess, snack, or Internet meme, fill out a card for each of their classmates,...
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  COVID-19 Terminology Explained COVID-19 has become a household term. But what does COVID-19 mean? And why does the virus that causes COVID-19 have a different name? In February 2020, as the novel coronavirus disease was beginning to spread beyond China and the surrounding regions, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced an...
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  What Is the Difference Between Influenza and COVID-19? Influenza and the coronavirus disease COVID-19 appear to be very similar. After all, both are respiratory diseases, and they are transmitted via contact with infectious respiratory droplets. Beyond that, however, they differ in important ways. What are some of these differences, and why do they...
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  Why Do Flamingos Stand on One Leg? Resplendent in bright pink feathers (the result of a diet rich in larvae, algae, and shrimp), flamingos are among nature’s most beautiful birds—and the strangest. They eat with their heads upside down, sleep with their heads on their backs, and often rest by standing for long periods on one leg....
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  Why Does Too Much Caffeine Keep You Awake at Night? Caffeine is one of the most popular stimulants in the world and is most commonly consumed in coffee. People turn to caffeine to wake up in the morning and to stay energized throughout the day, but there’s a downside: Too much caffeine can keep you awake even when you’re ready to sleep. The key to...
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  Why Is Bird Poop White? Actually, bird poop, per se, is not white. Birds, unlike mammals, do not have separate exits for urine and feces. Both waste products are eliminated simultaneously through the cloaca. While mammals excrete nitrogenous wastes mostly in the form of urea, birds convert it to uric acid or guanine,...
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  What Is Known (and Not Known) About Area 51 Area 51 has spawned more conspiracy theories than perhaps any other military facility in the world. Here’s what we know (and don’t know) about this U.S. military installation. Companion, Nevada, secrets, Central Intelligence Agency, CIA, government, military, Air Force, Cold War, Dwight D....
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  How Is Inflammation Involved in Swelling? Immediately following an injury, the traumatized area becomes red, warm, and painful, and it begins to swell. The swelling process, also known as edema, is the result of acute inflammation, a response triggered by damage to living tissues. In the case of injury, the purpose of the inflammatory...
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  How Oprah Got Sued for Dissing a Burger An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. In December 1997 Oprah Winfrey, the American talk show host, and Howard Lyman, a former cattle rancher and then director of the Humane Society’s Eating with a Conscience Campaign, were sued in federal...
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  What Is Jeremy Bentham’s “Auto-Icon”? Jeremy Bentham, the founder of modern utilitarianism, died in London on June 6, 1832, at the age of 84. In the last version of his will, dated May 30, one week before his death, Bentham bequeathed his body to his friend Dr. Thomas Southwood Smith, instructing him and Bentham’s executor to arrange...
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  How did Patrice Lumumba die? For decades, the question of how Patrice Lumumba, the first prime minister of the newly independent Democratic Republic of the Congo, died—and the related questions of who killed him and why—were subject to much speculation. The short answer is that Lumumba was executed by a firing squad on January...
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  Who Really Invented Baseball? You may have heard the charming tale of how war hero Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown, New York. Unfortunately, that’s a bit of a myth. The true story of who invented baseball is a little more convoluted and a tad less romantic. Baseball likely had its origins in the early 1800s,...
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  Why Do Some Animals Hibernate? Certain animals hibernate because food supplies become scarce during the winter months. By going into a long deep sleep, they bypass this period completely, waking up when food becomes more plentiful. Bears are most commonly associated with hibernation (although they are not considered true...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Solstice and an Equinox? You may know that the solstices and equinoxes signal the changing of the seasons on Earth, but do you remember which is which? Are they just different names for the same thing? Actually, a solstice and an equinox are sort of opposites. The seasons on Earth change because the planet is slightly...
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  Why Does the New Year Start on January 1? In many countries the New Year begins on January 1. However, this wasn’t always the case. In fact, for centuries, other dates marked the start of the calendar, including March 25 and December 25. So how did January 1 become New Year’s Day? We can partly thank the Roman king Numa Pompilius....
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  Which Is Correct: Hanukkah or Chanukah? The Jewish Festival of Lights is an eight-day celebration that commemorates the rededication of the Second Temple of Jerusalem. It is one of the most popular holidays in Judaism and is marked by the lighting of the menorah. For many English speakers, the festival is also known for confusion over...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Glacier and an Ice Floe? While it is true that both glaciers and ice floes are large masses of ice that can be found in arctic regions, there is a major difference between them. Basically, glaciers originate on land, and ice floes form in open water and are a form of sea ice. Glaciers are formed by the recrystallization of...
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  Did the Vikings Discover America? Did the Vikings discover America? It’s a question that requires some unpacking. To begin with, there’s the problem of the Eurocentric perspective of the word discover, which looks at the encounter with the New World from the vantage point of guys on ships and ignores the fact that indigenous people...
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  How did Albert Camus die? In the afternoon on January 4, 1960, French philosopher Albert Camus, author of The Stranger (1942) and The Myth of Sisyphus (1942), was riding in the front passenger seat of a Facel Vega driven by his friend and publisher’s nephew, Michel Gallimard. Camus and Gallimard were returning to Paris...
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  What Were Contraband Camps? For upward of 500,000 enslaved people, the path to freedom during the American Civil War (1861–65) involved a contraband camp. These enclaves were established by people who fled from enslavement to Union-controlled territory. Although some Union officials initially sent them back to the...
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  What Happens to Earth If the Amazon Rainforest Is Completely Burned? Metaphorically speaking, the vast tropical rainforest in South America’s Amazon River basin is often called the “lungs of the planet.” Some people claim that the Amazon Rainforest alone is responsible for 20 percent of Earth’s oxygen, but is this really true? As the region experiences more fires in...
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  How Have Zoroastrians Been Treated in Muslim Iran? Zoroastrianism is one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions. Founded in ancient Persia in the 6th century BCE, it gradually overtook local polytheistic faiths. Zoroastrianism was even practiced by Persia’s ruling families. Under the Sasanian empire, which was founded in 224 CE, it was the...
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  Why Are People Afraid of Clowns? Coulrophobia is no laughing matter. This irrational fear of clowns can cause panic and nausea. Although it’s a rare phobia, many people find clowns creepy if not downright scary. Why? The answer lies partly in the prevalence of evil clowns in popular culture—think Pennywise in Stephen King’s It...
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  What were Alfred’s military achievements? Much of Alfred’s reign as king of Wessex was consumed with defending his kingdom against Danish invaders. By the time he was king, Danish armies had overrun the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria, East Anglia, and most of Mercia, gaining political power in those regions and establishing...
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  Was there a feud between William Faulkner and Ernest Hemingway? In April 1947 William Faulkner was invited to visit the University of Mississippi. While conducting a question-and-answer session in a creative writing class, Faulkner was asked to name “the five most important contemporary writers.” He listed (in order) American novelists Thomas Wolfe, John Dos...
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  What was Hadrian’s relationship with his Jewish subjects? Rome’s relationship with the Jewish population of the Roman Empire had been strained since the destruction of Jerusalem in the 1st century CE, and Hadrian’s focus on Romanizing the province of Judaea greatly exacerbated tensions. He aimed to transform Jerusalem into a Roman metropolis, and in 132...
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  What was Hadrian’s architectural legacy? Although the emperor Hadrian spent little time in Rome itself, he left his mark on the imperial capital in the form of art and architecture. Arguably his most famous achievement was the Pantheon, which he likely completed by 125 CE. It is made of brick and concrete and once displayed a marble...
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  How did Greek culture influence Hadrian? Before being named Trajan’s successor as Roman emperor, Hadrian spent a period of time in Athens, likely from the end of his consulship in 108 CE until he was appointed legatus (“general”) of the Syrian province in 117. In his youth he was affectionately known as Graeculus (“little Greek”) on...
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  What Is the Newest Country in the World? New countries don’t pop up every day. And even if a territorial entity does declare itself to be an independent country, it is not always recognized as such by the rest of the world. The newest internationally recognized country in the world is the African country of South Sudan, which declared...
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  Beautiful Gibberish: Fake Arabic in Medieval and Renaissance Art In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, painters and sculptors often incorporated inscriptions into their work. Many of these were legible texts in Latin or other European languages, but sometimes painters reached east, borrowing the languages of the Holy Land. Arabic was especially popular, but...
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  How Do Hurricanes Get Their Names? In meteorology, hurricanes and typhoons are regional names for tropical cyclones, and individual storms of each type are named by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), which maintains rotating lists of names. These premade lists are made up of easy-to-remember male and female first names,...
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  Why Do Americans Celebrate the Fourth of July with Fireworks? Fireworks have been part and parcel of U.S. Independence Day, the anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, since its first celebration in July 1777. That celebration took place in the midst of the Revolutionary War, however, and explosions, artillery fire, and “bombs bursting...
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  Why Do Cats Hate Water? An aversion to water is one of the most well-known characteristics of household cats. However, this isn’t true of all felines. Some large cats, such as tigers, commonly take a dip to cool off or hunt prey, and even some domesticated breeds are known to enjoy a swim when the opportunity arises. In...
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  Radium Girls: The Women Who Fought for Their Lives in a Killer Workplace At the onset of World War I, several factories were established across the United States to produce watches and military dials painted with a material containing radium, a radioactive element that glows in the dark. Hundreds of young women were hired for the well-paying painting jobs because their...
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  What Causes a Volcano to Erupt? Volcanic eruptions are among the most stunning phenomena in the natural world. Volcanoes erupt because of the way heat moves beneath Earth’s surface. Heat is conveyed from the planet’s interior to its surface largely by convection—the transfer of heat by movement of a heated fluid. In this case,...
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  How Did Helen Keller Fly a Plane? In June 1946 an airplane traveled from Rome to Paris, crossing over the Mediterranean Sea. There was nothing unusual about this flight except one thing: for 20 minutes of the plane’s journey, one of its passengers became its pilot. The passenger was Dr. Helen Keller, an American author, educator,...
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  The Arctic’s Seed-Filled Doomsday Fortress Beyond the Arctic Circle lies the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, the world’s largest secure seed storage. Opened by the Norwegian government in 2008, the facility is built into the side of a remote mountain on Spitsbergen, the largest of the Svalbard islands. Unlike other seed banks, which protect...
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  What Is Intersectionality? In the 2010s intersectionality became the rallying cry of many left-wing activists fighting for social justice. The Oxford English Dictionary added the word in 2015, and Merriam-Webster published a definition two years later. The term skyrocketed in popularity, in part due to the philosophy...
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  Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse? On January 1, 1991, the Soviet Union was the largest country in the world, covering some 8,650,000 square miles (22,400,000 square km), nearly one-sixth of Earth’s land surface. Its population numbered more than 290 million, and 100 distinct nationalities lived within its borders. It also boasted...
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  Carlo Gesualdo: Murder, Witchcraft, Choral Music For centuries, the Italian nobleman and composer Carlo Gesualdo (1566–1613) has been a figure of fascination, although his fame rests more on the troubled life he led than the unusual, challenging musical compositions he left behind. The main events of his life seem to have come out of a gothic...
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  Why Is Pride Month Celebrated in June? Colorful uplifting parades with floats and celebrities, joyous festivals, workshops, picnics, and parties are among the principal components of LGBTQ Pride Month, also called Gay Pride, which is celebrated in June in the United States and elsewhere around the world. Pride Month commemorates years...
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  What Will Be Used for Money After Bills and Coins? Money, it has been said, is “a social convention.” Everyone agrees some pieces of paper or discs of metal issued by a government have a specific value, and everyone also agrees to that value. And then everyone exchanges these bits of paper and metal for stuff or services or something else of equal...
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  Who Can Declare a Pandemic and What Criteria Are Required for an Outbreak to Be Called a Pandemic? This article was originally published on March 18, 2020. The World Health Organization (WHO) is responsible for declaring a pandemic. WHO monitors disease activity on a global scale through a network of centres located in countries worldwide and has a pandemic preparedness plan that consists of six...
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  How Would a Cashless Society Work? There’s a place today where a rapidly decreasing number of people rely on cash: Sweden. It’s the developed Western country that, today, is probably closest to being a cashless society. Even though an overwhelming majority of businesses accept cash, a very small percentage of consumers actually want...
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  Was Dracula a Real Person? Bram Stoker’s Dracula is popularly associated with Vlad the Impaler, and some scholars do believe that the literary bloodsucker is derived in part from the historical Walachian prince. If Stoker did indeed base the archetypal vampire on Vlad, what led him to do so? Among the other possible...
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  How Do Birth Control Pills Work? Birth control pills are among the most popular methods of preventing pregnancy. In the United States alone, between 2015 and 2017 about 13.9 percent of women used birth control pills, which are also called oral contraceptives. When used correctly, birth control pills are 99.7 percent effective in...
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  Did Dinosaurs Really Have Feathers? Science is learning more and more about the versatility of form in dinosaurs with each great find in China, the Americas, Antarctica, and elsewhere. During their heyday in the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods, dinosaurs evolved to fill niches in most ecosystems. Some were large, some were...
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  Was Bloody Mary a Real Person? Mary Tudor was the daughter of King Henry VIII of England and his first wife, the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon. Mary’s early life was chaotic, as her father’s frequent remarriages threatened both her claim to the throne and her very survival. Henry’s pursuit of a male heir led to his split...
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  What Would Happen If All the Bees Died? There are about 20,000 species of bees in the world, and they are probably the most important insect pollinators. The thousands of bee species have unique flight patterns and floral preferences, and many have coevolved with flowers in such a way that their body sizes and behaviors almost perfectly...
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  Why Don’t Birds Have Teeth? According to most paleontologists, birds branched off of one of the main dinosaur lineages more than 100 million years ago. Numerous dinosaur fossils show that dinosaurs did indeed have teeth, but why are modern birds toothless? What happened to birds between then and now to make them this way?...
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  Is It Still Important to Learn Roman Numerals? There’s one reason that the symbols from the ancient Roman system of numerical notation eventually gave way to the Arabic numeral system that is familiar to people around the world: Roman numerals can be rather impractical and cumbersome to use. For example, it might be taken for granted, but...
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  Who Is Hanukkah Harry? Some Americans might be quick to say that Hanukkah Harry is the patron figure of Hanukkah, comparable to Santa Claus’s role for Christmas. However, Hanukkah Harry’s origins can be traced only as far back as 1989, when the fictional character first appeared in a Saturday Night Live (SNL) sketch,...
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  A Brief History of Libraries Back in the day, before the advent of online search engines, people with questions commonly turned to the most reliable source they knew: their local library. All you had to do was ask, and a reference librarian would answer your question directly or point you toward a book containing the...
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  Why Is the Mona Lisa So Famous? Five centuries after Leonardo da Vinci painted the Mona Lisa (1503–19), the portrait hangs behind bulletproof glass within the Louvre Museum and draws thousands of jostling spectators each day. It is the most famous painting in the world, and yet, when viewers manage to see the artwork up close,...
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  Fear of Knowledge Humans have always been an inquisitive species, constantly seeking knowledge to improve our lives and those of future generations. Knowledge, after all, is power. It allows us to understand ourselves and the world around us, and with that understanding has come great advances. Knowledge has built...
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  The Time a Law Clerk Successfully Forged a New Shakespeare Play to Impress His Dad The trove of documents was astonishing. A deed was the first to emerge—a dull legal agreement made nearly 200 years earlier. Its paper and ink and wax seals were authenticated by people who knew these things. Enthusiasm followed, and so did more documents, all of about the same vintage: a receipt...
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  What Did Shakespeare Sound Like? Of course, since there was no recording technology in Shakespeare’s time, we can never really know what the bard and his contemporaries sounded like. But using linguistic principles, we can guess. Shakespeare almost certainly didn’t sound like John Gielgud, Laurence Olivier, or any of the other...
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  Did George Washington Really Say, “I Can’t Tell a Lie”? In the words of Henry Lee’s eulogy, George Washington was "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." His accomplishments were titanic: commander of the victorious Continental Army during the American Revolution, first president of the United States, “Father of His...
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  Defenestration: Prague’s History of Literally Throwing Authority Out the Window Prague, the capital of the Czech Republic, is famous for its rich heritage and variety of architectural styles. But did you know that an integral part of the city’s history involves people being thrown out of windows? Prague’s past is home to a series of defenestrations, a term that refers to the...
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  Have Any U.S. Presidents Decided Not to Run For a Second Term? “I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president,” Lyndon B. Johnson told a shocked national television audience on the evening of March 31, 1968, thus becoming one of several U.S. presidents who decided not to run for a second elected term....
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  Did the Beatles Really Say They Were More Popular than Jesus? In March 1966 Maureen Cleave, a reporter and friend of Beatles member John Lennon, published a profile in the London Evening Standard: “How does a Beatle live? John Lennon lives like this.” In the profile the 25-year-old Lennon discussed his strained relationship with his father, the toys he bought...
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  What Is the Legacy of ABBA in Popular Culture? By the time ABBA quietly disbanded in 1982 due to rising interpersonal tensions, they had already secured a legendary spot for themselves in the history of popular music and were set to remain a fixture in global pop culture at large. Longtime fans of ABBA, British synth-pop group Erasure covered...
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  What did Jan Ingenhousz discover about photosynthesis? Dutch-born British physician and scientist Jan Ingenhousz discovered that light is necessary for photosynthesis. This observation built upon work begun by English scientist Joseph Priestley, who had burned a candle in a closed container until the air within the container could no longer support...
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  Why did Joseph McCarthy’s influence decline? Wisconsin Sen. Joseph McCarthy catapulted to national prominence in the United States after his claim in February 1950 that 205 communists were at that time employed by the State Department. Over the next few years, McCarthy capitalized on existing Cold War fears that Soviet communist subversion...
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  Were the Nazis Socialists? Were the Nazis socialists? No, not in any meaningful way, and certainly not after 1934. But to address this canard fully, one must begin with the birth of the party. In 1919 a Munich locksmith named Anton Drexler founded the Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP; German Workers’ Party). Political parties...
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  Why Are Sloths So Slow? “Sloth” is considered one of the seven deadly sins because, according to Catholic tradition, it hinders spiritual progress. It’s also the name of a group of six living species of mammals that are known for their slowness, but in their case slowness is beneficial. The slowness of sloths is...
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  What were the circumstances that surrounded Roald Amundsen’s death? Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian explorer, is known as one of the pillars of the “Heroic Age” of polar exploration. His exploits, which spanned Earth’s northern and southern polar regions during the first decades of the 20th century, are legendary even by today’s standards. He and his crew aboard the...
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  Why Is It Called Black Friday? The day following Thanksgiving—commonly referred to as Black Friday—has become one of the busiest shopping days of the year in the United States. National chain stores traditionally offer limited money-saving specials on a wide variety of goods in an effort to lure shoppers into stores while...
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  Ghost Forests Are Becoming the New Haunts of Climate Change Ghost forests are likely not filled with ghosts, but they should probably scare us. A ghost forest is a stand of dead and decaying trees, an eerie sight that serves as a dramatic warning of a growing problem within the global ecosystem. Ghost forests form when the ocean rises and floods coastal...
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  Why Is Black History Month Celebrated in February? “February is Black History Month.” Since the 1970s that familiar declaration has introduced countless celebrations of African American history and achievement, from Black History Minutes on local television stations to the pronouncements of U.S. presidents. But why is February designated as the...
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  Why Do We Eat Turkey on Thanksgiving? As celebrated in the United States, the holiday of Thanksgiving usually revolves around a bountiful meal. Typical dishes include bread stuffing, potatoes, cranberry sauce, pumpkin pie, and, above all, turkey. How did turkey become the centerpiece of this feast? It is often assumed that today’s...
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  Do We Really Swallow Spiders in Our Sleep? The belief that we swallow an average of eight spiders in our sleep every year has become so ingrained in popular culture that many people now accept it as fact. The reality, however, is quite different: we swallow no spiders at all. There are several reasons why spiders don’t bother us in our...
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  How did St. Francis Xavier shape Catholicism? Beyond the lasting cultural impact of having baptized tens of thousands of converts throughout Asia, St. Francis Xavier utilized several unique approaches in his ministry that would ultimately influence Roman Catholic missionary strategy for generations. He is credited with the idea that...
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  Did Jules Verne Invent the Submarine? Jules Verne’s Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (Vingt mille lieues sous les mers, 1870) contains two of his most memorable creations, the mysterious Captain Nemo and a marvelous submarine, the Nautilus. This submarine is 70 metres (230 feet) long and armour-plated, capable of sinking any ship,...
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  Why Is Missouri Called the Show Me State? Missouri has long been known as the Show Me state, but the origins of that nickname aren’t entirely clear. Perhaps the best-known story involves a Missouri representative named Willard Duncan Vandiver. After a tour of the Philadelphia Navy Yard in 1899, the congressman was invited to a meeting of...
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  Was Abraham Lincoln a Wrestler? Before he wrestled with the future of American democracy as the 16th president of the United States, Abraham Lincoln earned a reputation as a stud “catch-as-catch-can” frontier grappler. Imagine the 6-foot-4-inch Lincoln (a giant in his day) as the ultimate WWE good guy: “Put your hands together...
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  Was Napoleon Short? At the beginning of the 19th century, Charles IV, king of Spain, commissioned the preeminent artist Jacques-Louis David to commemorate Napoleon’s successful campaign against Austria at the Battle of Marengo with a painting. David’s finished work, Napoleon Crossing the Alps (1801), portrays the...
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  Walt Disney’s First Cartoon Critter Was Not Mickey Mouse The entertainment empire built by Walt Disney is sometimes called the “House of Mouse” in acknowledgment of the leading role played by Disney’s most famous creation, Mickey Mouse. Mickey’s round mouse ears, either in silhouette or adorning a hat, have become one of the most recognizable corporate...
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  Investigating Therapeutic Uses for Hallucinogens Hallucinogens are a class of psychoactive drugs that produce temporary mental changes that include distorted sensory perception and dreamlike states of consciousness. For thousands of years, hallucinogenic substances have been linked with profound mystical experience; the Rigveda mentions a plant...
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  What was Ulysses S. Grant’s policy regarding Reconstruction? U.S. Pres. Andrew Johnson, Ulysses S. Grant’s predecessor, was a hard-line Southern Democrat who handled Reconstruction in the South with leniency. As a result, Southern state and local governments quickly passed a series of black codes that ensured the sociopolitical hegemony of white planters...
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  The Surprisingly Disorderly History of the U.S. Presidential Succession Order In 1981 U.S. Pres. Ronald Reagan was shot during an assassination attempt. While he was incapacitated in the hospital, Secretary of State Alexander Haig famously declared, “I am in control here.” He also told reporters, “Constitutionally, gentlemen, you have the president, the vice president, and...
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  How Is Tennis Scored? To win a game in tennis, a player must win four points and must win by a margin of two. The scoring goes as follows, after starting at love: 15, 30, 40, game. This system is medieval in origin. It never has been satisfactorily explained why three points equal 40 rather than 45. Zero is generally...
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  How Albert Einstein Developed the Theory of General Relativity In 1907, two years after the publication of his theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein came to a key realization: special relativity could not be applied to gravity or to an object undergoing acceleration. Imagine someone inside a closed room sitting on Earth. That person can feel Earth’s...
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  Queen Elizabeth’s Court Occultist In 2016, X-ray examination of Henry Gillard Glindoni’s painting John Dee Performing an Experiment before Elizabeth I revealed that a circle of human skulls was present in an earlier version of the work. The finished painting depicts a scene that looks rather like a mundane chemistry experiment, but...
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  Who Votes for the Academy Awards? After the glitzy red-carpet arrivals, the feel-good montages, and the host’s opening roast, the Oscars ceremony switches to its raison d’être: revealing the previous year’s highest achievers in cinema. One after another, the presenters list the nominees, open a lavish envelope, and reveal the...
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  Who Founded Chicago? To early writers of Chicago’s history, John Kinzie, a white Protestant involved in trade and politics, was the embodiment of a founding father—so they designated him the city’s first citizen. Yet these writers overlooked Jean-Baptist-Point Du Sable, the man who is thought to have first occupied the...
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  When Does Summer Start? Many climate scientists define the start of summer in terms of meteorological phenomena and the calendar year. They claim that the meteorological summer season starts on June 1 and lasts three months, until September 1. Other people define the beginning of summer in academic terms—as the end of the...
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  What’s the Difference Between Bluetooth and Wi-Fi? If you have a smartphone, laptop, tablet, or similar device, it is probably equipped with both Bluetooth and Wi-Fi wireless capabilities. But what exactly are Bluetooth and Wi-Fi, and how do they differ? Bluetooth, developed in the late 1990s, is a technology designed to enable short-range wireless...
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  18 Food Crops Developed in the Americas Although no continent on Earth is now untouched by the diverse and delicious seed and food crops developed in the Americas, the brilliance of the native peoples who domesticated these nourishing plants over millennia has largely been overlooked by history. The following is a list celebrating some...
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  Freaky Fluorescent Frog Found In March 2017 a team of Argentine and Brazilian scientists announced that they had found a tree frog that naturally fluoresces, the first known amphibian to do so. The polka-dot tree frog (Hypsiboas punctatus) is a small frog about 3 cm (1.2 inches) in length that lives in the Amazon basin. Its...
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  Gilles de Rais: History’s First Serial Killer? Even if there had been nothing else unusual about the Breton nobleman Gilles de Rais (1404–40), his outstanding career as a soldier in the Hundred Years’ War and as a comrade in arms of Joan of Arc would have been enough to guarantee his place in history. Today, though, those achievements can only...
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  Why Is Marijuana Illegal in the U.S.? Since the late 20th century, there has been a growing movement in the United States to legalize marijuana. In 1996 California made news as the first U.S. state to approve the decriminalization of pot for medical use, and medical marijuana was later allowed in other states. Then in 2012 Washington...
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  10 Fascinating Facts About Megalodon Learn more about megalodon, the biggest fish that ever lived. Companion, sharks, prehistoric creatures, megalodon, fossils, fish, biggest...
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  Rosa Parks, the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the Birth of the Civil Rights Movement On the evening of December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a 42-year-old African American seamstress and civil rights activist living in Montgomery, Alabama, was arrested for refusing to obey a bus driver who had ordered her and three other African American passengers to vacate their seats to make room for a...
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  What is the Difference Between Daoism and Confucianism? The two great indigenous philosophical and religious traditions of China, Daoism and Confucianism, originated about the same time (6th–5th century BCE) in what are now the neighboring eastern Chinese provinces of Henan and Shandong, respectively. Both traditions have permeated Chinese culture for...
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  Do Plants Feel Pain? Given that plants do not have pain receptors, nerves, or a brain, they do not feel pain as we members of the animal kingdom understand it. Uprooting a carrot or trimming a hedge is not a form of botanical torture, and you can bite into that apple without worry. However, it seems that many plants...
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  Who Was the First Person to Survive Niagara Falls in a Barrel? Let’s say you’re looking to get rich quick. Would you sell your belongings? Play the lottery? Head to Las Vegas? Would you jump off Niagara Falls? In 1901 62-year-old dance teacher Annie Edson Taylor was looking for cash. The method? Performing a daredevil stunt so fantastic that she’d be...
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  Who Killed Tupac Shakur? Tupac Shakur died on September 13, 1996, six days after a gunman in a white Cadillac shot him four times in the chest at a stoplight in Las Vegas. A Los Angeles Times investigation published in 2002 determined that uncooperative witnesses and minimal pursuit of gang-related leads resulted in what...
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  The Strange, Grisly History of the First Blood Transfusion Across many cultures, humans have regarded blood as a substance with important regenerative properties since long before blood transfusions became feasible as a form of medical therapy. The idea of transferring new blood to a sick person to restore his or her health is quite old, but until the...
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  The Anthropocene Epoch: Adding Humans to the Chart of Geologic Time On August 29, 2016, the Anthropocene Working Group (AWG)—a special body first convened in 2009 to advise the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) on the possibility of formally adding the Anthropocene as an interval to the official chart of geologic time—concluded a series of fateful...
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  How Deadly Are Australia’s Animals? Even more than for its gorgeous opera house, sandy beaches, or colourful reefs, Australia has cemented its reputation as home to some of the world’s deadliest animals. Or, if you believe the rumours, maybe even all of the world’s deadliest animals. The numbers tell a different story. It is...
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  Is African American Vernacular English a Language? In December 1996, national attention in the United States turned to a new resolution passed by the Oakland Unified School District (OUSD). The controversial resolution defined what it called “Ebonics” as a language separate from English, so as to better meet the needs of the district’s African...
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  What Do the Olympic Rings and Flame Represent? The Olympic Games were founded on a love of sport, unity, and competition and an ancient tradition of physical fitness. With such rich history and meaning, an event like the Olympics glows with symbolism and iconography that references its powerful themes. Two unique and well-known symbols of the...
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  Street Photography: How a Single Camera Brought About a Genre Candid images of the everyday, of common or unusual scenes playing out in public, are so ubiquitous in today’s image-flooded culture that it’s hard to remember that street photography as a genre formed only a little more than a half-century ago. A number of well-known artists were taking...
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  The Most Stolen Work of Art In 1432 the Flemish painter Jan van Eyck—with help from his brother Hubert—completed his masterpiece, Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, which was later put on display in St. Bavo’s Cathedral in Ghent, Belgium. The enormous work—measuring approximately 14.5 by 11.5 feet (4.4 by 3.5 meters) and weighing...
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  Who Was the First Woman to Run for President of the United States? When Hillary Clinton, running as the first female presidential candidate of a major political party, won the popular vote but lost the electoral college vote in the 2016 election, the glass ceiling preventing women from reaching the White House’s Oval Office trembled but didn’t break. Kamala...
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  How Bob Odenkirk Became Bob Odenkirk “I’ve done all these different things, and there’s been a great degree of failure,” Bob Odenkirk told The New York Times a few months after he died—for 18 minutes, at least—while filming Better Call Saul. Nowadays Odenkirk is best known for the role he was playing the day that his heart stopped:...
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  Questions About COVID-19 Answered Through illness, community and national lockdowns, and economic downturn, the COVID-19 pandemic has upended the lives of billions of people worldwide. At Britannica we have been fielding questions about the pandemic from readers since the beginning of the pandemic, and we’ve had a few questions of...
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  Why Was Nazi Germany Called the Third Reich? Nazi leader Adolf Hitler imagined his dictatorial regime as the historical successor to two great German empires. By claiming for his government the mantle of the Third Reich, Hitler attempted to position himself within the larger context of German and European history. In his mind, Hitler’s...
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  Pearl Harbor in Context When U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt declared that December 7, 1941, would be “a date which will live in infamy,” he was primarily referring to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. However, later in that same speech, he clarified that the Pearl Harbor attack was just one element of a larger...
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  Why Do Athletes Wear Numbered Jerseys? “The new and enterprising Cleveland Club management has taken the bull by the horns and numbered its players,” proclaimed Sporting Life magazine on July 8, 1916. A weekly sports journal based in Philadelphia Sporting Life had recommended that teams adopt numbering “years ago”—a suggestion that...
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  The Effects of China’s One-Child Policy The one-child policy was a program that was implemented nationwide by the Chinese government in 1980 in order to limit most Chinese families to one child each. The policy was enacted to address the growth rate of China’s population, which the government viewed as being too high. In late 2015 the...
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  What Happened to the Dinosaurs? One day 66 million years ago, an asteroid the size of a mountain struck near the Yucatán Peninsula with an explosive force equivalent to 100 trillion tons of TNT. In that cataclysmic instant, the 165-million-year reign of the dinosaurs came to an end. The asteroid theory of the dinosaurs’ demise...
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  What’s the Difference Between Global Warming and Climate Change? People often confuse the concepts of global warming and climate change, and it doesn’t help that media companies often substitute one for the other in TV, newspaper, and social media reporting. This is somewhat understandable since the two concepts overlap a great deal. In fact, there is a causal...
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  Why Are Some Time Zones 30 Minutes Off Instead of an Hour? Ideally, time zones would be slices of Earth’s surface 15 degrees of longitude wide that keep the same time. However, some countries and parts of countries have decided that being within a specific time zone is not preferable and have chosen offsets of 30 minutes or even 45 minutes. Why? Consider...
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  Why Do Dogs Eat Poop? Though poop is certainly not a staple food for any human, it may come as no surprise that poop is a common part of many a dog’s diet. While a dog eating poop may not be entirely shocking—in fact, an estimated 16 percent of domesticated dogs eat poop—it may still be puzzling. And though dogs can...
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  How Does the Human Body Maintain Its Temperature? People are mammals, and mammals are warm-blooded creatures, capable of maintaining a relatively constant internal temperature regardless of the environmental temperature. Body temperature control is one example of homeostasis—an organism’s self-regulating process that tends to maintain internal...
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  7 Massachusetts Bay Colonists to Know The Pilgrims, the Mayflower, Plymouth Rock, and Thanksgiving are familiar elements of the history of Plymouth colony, the first permanent settlement by Europeans in New England. However, the area that would become the state of Massachusetts was also the site of another colony that played a huge...
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  What Is the Origin of the Term “Jim Crow”? From the late 1870s until the triumphs of the civil rights movement in the 1950s and ’60s, regimented racial segregation blighted America’s water fountains, restrooms, restaurants, lodging, and transportation, along with “separate but equal” schools. All of these were legally sanctioned by the U.S....
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  How the Nitrogen Cycle Works Nitrogen is the most plentiful element in Earth’s atmosphere and is a constituent of all living matter. It is essential to human survival as well as the survival of other animals and plants. But even while surrounded by nitrogen in the atmosphere, animals and plants are unable to make use of free...
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  The Oldest Human Ancestor In 2017, our family tree got a little taller: an international team of scientists identified well-preserved fossils of a primitive sea creature that they say is the oldest known ancestor of a wide range of animals, including humans. The microscopic creature—named Saccorhytus after its baglike body...
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  When did women start wearing pants? In some cultures, pants have been common garments worn by women for centuries or millennia. This was not the case in much of Western society. In the United States, women typically wore long skirts, with the exception of some women who wore pantslike garments to perform work or engage in sports....
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  History of Technology Timeline Companion, technology, invention, inventions, inventors, tools, fire, telegraph, steam engine, electricity, automobile,...
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  How Long Did the Flu Pandemic of 1918 Last? The influenza pandemic of 1918–19, also called the Spanish flu, lasted between one and two years. The pandemic occurred in three waves, though not simultaneously around the globe. In the Northern Hemisphere, the first wave originated in the spring of 1918, during World War I. Although it remains...
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  What Is Known (and Not Known) About Malaysia Airlines Flight MH17 Rumors, conjecture, and conspiracy theories swirl around the crash of Malaysian Airlines flight MH17. Companion, MH17, Malaysia Airlines, plane crash, airplanes, Ukraine, Netherlands, Russia, missile,...
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  What Is the Difference Between Primary and Secondary Ecological Succession? Ecosystems are not static things. Wetlands and grasslands, patches of forests, and even whole landscapes (which may contain several ecosystems) constantly evolve in response to changing temperatures, moisture levels, light availability, rates of nutrient inflow and outflow, and activities of...
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  Attendees of Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Funeral On April 4, 1968, the United States was shaken to its core by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., the country’s preeminent civil rights leader. In desperation and rage, more than 100 U.S. cities erupted in arson, looting, and violence. In a display of deep respect for King’s...
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  What Is Known (and Not Known) About Contrails Contrail is short for “condensation trail.” A condensation trail is a streamer of cloud sometimes observed behind an airplane flying in clear, cold, humid air. Here’s what is known (and not known) about these man-made clouds. Companion, airplane, aircraft, atmosphere, chemical compound, chemical,...
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  Unidentified Flying Objects: What We Know Everything we know (and only what we know) about the phenomenon of UFOs. Companion, UFO, UFOs, flying saucers, airships, aircraft, spacecraft, aliens, extraterrestrials, extraterrestrial hypothesis, Project Sign, Project Grudge, Project Blue Book, U.S. Air Force, CIA, H.P. Robertson, Robertson...
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  What State Is Washington, D.C. In? Washington, D.C. is a territory and not a state, nor is it part of any U.S. state. It is surrounded by the state of Maryland on the northwest, northeast, and southeast and bordered by the state of Virginia, across the Potomac River, on the west and southwest. Companion, washington dc, geography,...
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  Why Does -saur Appear So Often in Dinosaur Names? The suffix -saurus, which appears at the end of the scientific names of various dinosaurs (and in shortened form at the end of the word dinosaur itself) is a Latinized form of the Greek word sauros. Saurus, which literally means “lizard,” appears as a suffix in the names of many dinosaurs because...
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  Were All Egyptian Pharaohs Buried in Pyramids? In ancient Egypt, pyramids were the most characteristic tomb for kings of the Old Kingdom. The mummies of such pharaohs as Djoser, Khafre, and Menkaure were placed in a subterranean burial chamber underneath a pyramid. Khufu’s mummy, however, was placed inside the Great Pyramid, in the King’s...
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  Was Martin Luther King, Jr., a Republican or a Democrat? Political parties are always looking for endorsements from community leaders and other influencers. Having support from prominent figures can make or break a candidate or party. It’s no surprise that sometimes political groups will also try to claim affiliation with historical figures of note. One...
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  Ten Days That Vanished: The Switch to the Gregorian Calendar When it comes to calendars, small errors can add up over time. The Julian calendar—the prevalent calendar in the Christian world for the first millennium CE and part of the second millennium—was an improvement over the Roman republican calendar that it replaced, but it was 11 minutes and 14 seconds...
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  What Is the Origin of the Term Holocaust? Human history has few tragedies that rival the magnitude and moral bankruptcy of the Holocaust, the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women, and children and millions of others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. For the anti-Semitic Nazis who met...
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  How a Rejected Block of Marble Became the World’s Most Famous Statue At the start of the 16th century the Opera del Duomo—the committee of officials in charge of the decoration and maintenance of the Florence cathedral—had a tricky unfinished project on its hands. A document from 1501 refers to a massive barely begun statue, “a certain man of marble, named David,...
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  What’s Inside the Pyramid at Chichén Itzá? Twice a year thousands of visitors crowd into the ancient Maya city of Chichén Itzá, located in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, in anticipation of the descent of Kukulcán. They gather around the site’s pyramid, called El Castillo (“the Castle”) by Spanish conquistadors, where, according to legend,...
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  6 Interesting Facts about Srinivasa Ramanujan Srinivasa Ramanujan was one of the world’s greatest mathematicians. His life story, with its humble and sometimes difficult beginnings, is as interesting in its own right as his astonishing work was. Companion, mathematics, Srinivasa Ramanujan, India, pi, numbers, math,...
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  Timeline of Historical Events That Affected the Open Door Policy in China The Open Door policy was influential in China’s relations with the rest of the world. Companion, China, unequal treaties, Open Door policy, trade, Boxer Rebellion, Opium Wars, Mao...
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  The Rise of the Machines: Pros and Cons of the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution, the period in which agrarian and handicraft economies shifted rapidly to industrial and machine-manufacturing-dominated ones, began in the United Kingdom in the 18th century and later spread throughout many other parts of the world. This economic transformation changed...
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  A Brief (and Fascinating) History of Money Money. People worry about it, think of ways to get more of it, and dream about how to spend it. But how much do we really know about money? Keep reading for a short history of currency. WTFacts, money, currency, coins, gold standard, Bitcoins, paper...
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  Why Are Pterodactyls Not Dinosaurs? No matter how much you like pterodactyls, you’ll want to think twice before telling someone that they’re your favorite dinosaur. Since as early as 1834 the scientific community has considered pterodactyl an outdated informal name for members of the order Pterosauria, which includes all flying...
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  A Brief Overview of China’s Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution (in full, the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution) took place from 1966 to 1976 in China. The benign-sounding moniker belies the destruction it unleashed upon the country’s population. It was launched under the direction of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Chairman Mao...
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  HIV/AIDS: Just the Facts What we know about one of the worst pandemics in human history. Companion, HIV, AIDS, HIV/AIDS, human immunodeficiency virus, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, disease, virus, AIDS crisis, epidemic, retrovirus, antiretroviral,...
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  The Time Julius Caesar Was Captured by Pirates In the 1st century BCE the Mediterranean Sea had a crime problem. Specifically, it had a pirate problem. The rugged region of southern Anatolia known as Cilicia Trachea (Rough Cilicia) was notoriously infested with seagoing bandits whose depredations terrified Romans. In 75 BCE a band of Cilician...
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  Water Fluoridation: Just the Facts All there is to know about one of the most effective public health programs of the last century. Companion, fluoridation, fluoride, water treatment, government, public health, public health programs, dental health, fluorosis, water, drinking water, community water...
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  Louis Pasteur’s Contributions to Science Many people know Louis Pasteur for the process that bears his name—pasteurization. However, Pasteur made several other very important contributions to science that you should know about. Companion, Louis Pasteur, pasteurization, spontaneous generation, molecular asymmetry, chirality, vaccines,...
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  The Real Science Behind Frankenstein For those of us who got our introduction to Dr. Frankenstein and his monster from the movies, reading Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus for the first time can be a surprising experience. The 1931 Universal Studios film is a classic in its own right, but it doesn’t...
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  How Do Face Masks Control the Spread of Disease? Face masks have long been used in health care, often for the simple reason that they protect doctors and nurses from splashes of body fluids during procedures but also for the purpose of blocking the transmission of respiratory droplets. Thanks to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic,...
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  Trail of Tears: Routes, Statistics, and Notable Events This infographic provides a map of the principal routes used during the Trail of Tears, the forced relocation during the 1830s of Native American peoples from their lands in the southeastern U.S. to lands reserved for them west of the Mississippi River. Those western lands, then designated as...
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  How Other Species Learn In the wild, animals don’t live and learn. They learn and live. Knowledge equals survival. Certain knowledge is innate, such as a beaver’s instinctual understanding of how to build a dam or a bird’s to fly. But most knowledge must be learned. Like humans, the majority of species learn by observing...
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  Why Do We Drop a Ball on New Year’s Eve? “The Times Building will be especially illuminated to-night in honor of the birth of 1908,” announced The New York Times on December 31, 1907. “The exact moment of the New Year’s arrival will be signalized by the dropping of an electrically illuminated ball above the tower. The ball will be five...
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  5 Fast Facts About the East India Company The British East India Company was a private corporation formed in December 1600 to establish a British presence in the lucrative Indian spice trade, which until then had been monopolized by Spain and Portugal. The company eventually became an immensely powerful agent of British imperialism in...
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  How One Shrimp Used Its Survival Skills to Become Both Best-Selling Pet and Astronaut A few years after humans first went to the Moon, Sea-Monkeys joined them. Let’s get the disappointment out of the way first: Sea-Monkeys, despite advertising that may suggest otherwise, aren’t aquatic primates. They’re actually brine shrimp—small crustaceans in the order Anostraca that inhabit...
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  Why Have So Many World Leaders Married Their Cousins? A crown. A ring. Your cousin. What else do you need for a royal wedding? At this point, the fact that so many royals through history wed relatives in what are now termed consanguineous marriages is something of a history joke. But why did they do it in the first place? Before we begin, an...
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  Can Copyright Infringement Kill a Vampire? In recent decades vampire-centric entertainment has been populated with two kinds of monsters. One archetype is a seductive mystery man (or woman, though more often a man) who seems almost human. The other is a grotesque lonely monster. For the former think of Edward from the Twilight Saga and Brad...
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  Causes of the Great Depression The Great Depression of the late 1920s and ’30s remains the longest and most severe economic downturn in modern history. Lasting almost 10 years (from late 1929 until about 1939) and affecting nearly every country in the world, it was marked by steep declines in industrial production and in prices...
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  The Social Contract and Philosophy What, if anything, justifies the authority of the state? What are the proper limits of state power? Under what circumstances, if any, is it morally right to overthrow a state? Within Western political philosophy, one of the most influential approaches to such questions asserts that the state exists...
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  Are Zebras White with Black Stripes or Black with White Stripes? The question of whether zebras are white with black stripes or black with white stripes might seem like the set-up for a classic joke like this one: Q: What’s black and white and red all over? A: A zebra with a sunburn! But this question is no joke, because it actually does have an answer: zebras...
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  What Is the Significance of the #OscarsSoWhite Hashtag? Twitter user and activist April Reign first tweeted “#OscarsSoWhite they asked to touch my hair” on January 15, 2015, in immediate response to all 20 acting nominations for the year’s upcoming Academy Awards being given to white actors. Within that day, the hashtag became viral and was trending on...
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  The Mysterious Death of Edgar Allan Poe Among his many literary achievements, Edgar Allan Poe is credited with creating the genre of detective fiction with his 1841 story The Murders in the Rue Morgue, paving the way for fictional sleuths from Sherlock Holmes to Nancy Drew. It is fitting, then, that the author’s own death in 1849 remains...
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  Moon Landing: Just the Facts What you need to know about the 1969 U.S. Moon landing. Companion, astronomy, space travel, Moon, Moon landing, Apollo, space race, Buzz Aldrin, Neil Armstrong, Apollo 11, space, NASA, U.S....
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  Cannibalism: Cultures, Cures, Cuisine, and Calories Perhaps nothing inspires as much fascination and repulsion as human cannibalism. Although it is now regarded as one of society’s greatest taboos and is often associated with evil—think Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs (1991)—history reveals a practice that is more complex and,...
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  Why Do We Celebrate Halloween? Halloween has been around for more than a thousand years. Originally a religious observance, it became increasingly secular over the centuries until its religious trappings all but disappeared. Today Halloween is considered a holiday for dress-up and fun, especially for children. Halloween’s...
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  Is Castilian Spanish Spoken with a Lisp? The story goes like this: a medieval king of Spain spoke with a lisp. Wanting to imitate royalty, courtiers picked it up. The resulting th sound wormed its way into the Spanish language. It would be a great tale of linguistics, history, and idolization of the ruling class—if it were true. The myth...
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  What Is Known (and Not Known) About the Bermuda Triangle People have been trying to solve the “mystery” of the Bermuda Triangle for years. Here’s what we know (and don’t know) about the Bermuda Triangle. Companion, Bermuda Triangle, Bermuda, Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Greater Antilles, North America, ship, airplane, aircraft, navigation, disappearance,...
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  How Much Trash Is In Space? Space seems pretty empty. After all, much of the volume of the universe is a vacuum that will kill you. But humanity hasn’t taken only memories and left only footprints on the final frontier. We’ve left a lot of junk up there. In Earth’s orbit itself, the U.S. Space Surveillance Network is tracking...
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  Where Is the Ark of the Covenant? Jewish and Christian tradition presents the Ark of the Covenant as the physical manifestation of God’s presence and supreme power. Ancient Israelites marched the Ark into battle and brought whole cities to their knees. The Ark was so sacred that touching it meant instant death. And once it was laid...
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  How Do You Get a Nobel Prize? The Nobel Prizes, announced annually in the fall since 1901, cover five different disciplines: chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology/medicine. Additionally, there is an economics prize awarded at the Nobel ceremony (not technically a Nobel prize). That means you’ve got at least...
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  What Did Cleopatra Look Like? More than 2,000 years after her death in 30 BCE, the Egyptian queen Cleopatra still looms large in the popular imagination. Despite what is known of her brilliance and charm, in mass media depictions what often comes to the forefront is Cleopatra as a ravishingly seductive proto-femme fatale. Are...
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  A Brief History of Press Freedom On December 2, 1766, the Swedish parliament passed legislation that is now recognized as the world’s first law supporting the freedom of the press and freedom of information. Narrowly, the Freedom of the Press Act abolished the Swedish government’s role as a censor of printed matter, and it allowed...
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  Understanding Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion In the early 17th century, German astronomer Johannes Kepler postulated three laws of planetary motion. His laws were based on the work of his forebears—in particular, Nicolaus Copernicus and Tycho Brahe. Copernicus had put forth the theory that the planets travel in a circular path around the Sun....
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  Plato and Aristotle: How Do They Differ? Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE) are generally regarded as the two greatest figures of Western philosophy. For some 20 years Aristotle was Plato’s student and colleague at the Academy in Athens, an institution for philosophical, scientific, and mathematical research and...
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  Acts of Union: Uniting the United Kingdom Once you have figured out the difference between Great Britain and the United Kingdom, you can move on to learning how the kingdom became united. Three “Acts of Union” are the key. The U.K. flag, the Union Jack, is a great visual aid for keeping the story straight, but the story started a long time...
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  What’s the Difference Between Libel and Slander? Libel and slander are forms of defamation, which is an untrue statement presented as fact and intended to damage a person’s character or reputation. Libel is a defamatory statement made in writing, while slander is a defamatory statement that is spoken. To be defamatory, a statement, whether...
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  How Many People Have Been to the Moon? Even if you weren’t alive for the first Moon landing on July 20, 1969, you’ve probably seen footage of it, when astronaut Neil Armstrong famously declared, “That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind,” and Buzz Aldrin helped him plant an American flag on the lunar surface. And...
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  Why Do Mosquito Bites Itch? Summer is a great season for being outdoors, except when the bugs come out and start to bite. Among the peskiest of these are mosquitoes, whose bites can cause itching for days. But why can’t mosquitoes just take our blood and be done with it? Why do mosquito bites have to itch too? The short...
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  What Purposes Do Mosquitoes Serve in Ecosystems? All of us have experienced this: It’s nighttime, and we’re drifting off to sleep when we think we hear something close by. The sound gets louder, and we know what it is now—the high-pitched hum of a tiny invader’s rapid machinelike wingbeats cutting through the darkness and spiraling toward us. It...
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  Nikola Tesla’s Weird Obsession with Pigeons Nikola Tesla was a Serbian American engineer and physicist known for his groundbreaking work in electric power. He is considered a genius, with numerous patents to his name, but he had an eccentric side that many people found difficult. Among Tesla’s quirks was his fondness for pigeons. When living...
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  What Is the Most Widely Practiced Religion in the World? The world’s primary religions fall into two categories: Abrahamic religions, such as Christianity, Judaism, and Islam; and Indian religions, which include Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and others. Of the world’s major religions, Christianity is the largest, with more than two billion followers....
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  How Did King George V Really Die? Just before midnight on January 20, 1936, King George V died at Sandringham, in Norfolk, England. His health had gradually declined over the previous few months because of a chronic lung issue that had first appeared in 1928. He managed a last meeting with his privy council and secretary before he...
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  Why Do Cats Sleep So Much? Cat person? How many pictures of your cat sleeping have you got on your phone? A lot, right? They are so cute when they sleep…so cute. But then they are always asleep. Okay, not always, but a lot of the time. Why is that? The truth is that cats sleep an average of 15 hours per day. Some of them...
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  What Happened to the Megalodon? Megalodon (Carcharocles megalodon) was the scourge of the seas some 23 million to about 2.6 million years ago, during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. The largest megalodons likely measured about 17.9 meters (58.7 feet) long, which made them the largest sharks, the largest fish, and possibly even...
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  Is the Piano a Percussion or a Stringed Instrument? The piano is one of the most-popular musical instruments in the world. But peek inside it, and you’ll quickly discover that it is also among the more-complex instruments. You might also begin to wonder what type of instrument it is—percussion or stringed? Inside a piano, there are strings, and...
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  What’s the Difference Between Tempo and Rhythm? Regardless of whether you play a musical instrument, you probably know a little something about beat, melody, and harmony. But while many people are familiar with these terms, some still struggle to understand the difference between the most fundamental of musical elements—tempo and rhythm. In...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Psychopath and a Sociopath? And How Do Both Differ from Narcissists? Psychopath and sociopath are often used interchangeably in common speech to describe a person who is pathologically prone to criminal or violent behavior and who lacks any regard for the feelings or interests of others and any feelings of remorse or guilt for his crimes. Although the terms are also...
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  Why Do We Carve Pumpkins at Halloween? The jack-o’-lantern has a long history with Halloween, although our favorite demonic faces haven’t always been carved out of pumpkins. Their origin comes from an Irish myth about Stingy Jack, who tricked the Devil for his own monetary gain. When Jack died, God didn’t allow him into heaven, and the...
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  Are Bats Really Blind? Bats are idiosyncratic creatures, with habits that humans find incredibly odd—like occasional bloodsucking, sleeping upside down, and staying up all night. We characterize bats as supernatural, associating them with vampires and even superheroes. With their talent for echolocation, that’s no...
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  Is Zero an Even or an Odd Number? Mathematical parity is usually one of the first rules learned in early arithmetic classes, though you might be unfamiliar with the name. It is how we split up all integers into two categories: even numbers and odd numbers. Determining the parity of an integer—a number that can be written without a...
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  What’s the Difference Between an Herb and a Spice? The use of herbs and spices can be found as far back as prehistoric times, often as valuable forms of currency in trade. The seasonings have also been used for medicinal properties and as preservatives in food storage. Many spices have been found to contain antimicrobial properties that thwart the...
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  Why Do We Say “A Pair of Pants”? Ask anyone who is learning English as a second language what they think the most-maddening oddity of the language is and you are bound to get several different answers (there are, after all, dozens of exceptions to the “rules” of English). But here’s one that repeatedly comes up, even among native...
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  How Much Does Earth’s Atmosphere Weigh? In 1798 British physicist Henry Cavendish became the first person to accurately determine the mass of Earth. His painstakingly conducted experiment calculated the density of Earth and thus the value of G, the universal gravitational constant first proposed by Isaac Newton in 1687. While mass and...
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  What’s the Difference Between Sweet Potatoes and Yams? If you’re in the U.S., chances are that the “yams” you eat at Thanksgiving are actually sweet potatoes. Shocked? It’s true: yams and sweet potatoes are totally different plants and are not even closely related. In fact, these tasty starchy veggies are actually in two different plant families...
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  Why Is Christmas in December? Christmas, the holiday commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, is celebrated by a majority of Christians on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar. But early Christians did not celebrate his birth, and no one knows on which date Jesus was actually born (some scholars believe that the actual date...
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  What’s the Difference Between Emoji and Emoticons? The Internet has greatly changed the way we communicate. Since body language and verbal tone do not translate in our text messages or e-mails, we’ve developed alternate ways to convey nuanced meaning. The most prominent change to our online style has been the addition of two new-age hieroglyphic...
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  How Are Sports Chosen for the Olympics? The Olympic Games have expanded from 241 to more than 10,000 competitors since the original reestablishment in Athens with the 1896 Games. Dozens of additions and changes have been made in the Olympic program since 1896, with almost 100 events being added since 1980 alone. Although enthusiasts of...
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  Is 27 an Especially Deadly Age for Musicians? It’s long been said that 27 is a particularly dangerous age for musicians. Legendary bluesman Robert Johnson, Rolling Stones cofounder Brian Jones, Jimi Hendrix, Janis Joplin, Big Star cofounder Chris Bell, Nirvana front man Kurt Cobain, and Amy Winehouse are all members of the Forever 27 Club, so...
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  Is Cinco de Mayo Mexico’s Independence Day? Perhaps it would be best to state this at the beginning: Cinco de Mayo is not Mexico’s Independence Day. That holiday occurs on September 16 each year, the anniversary of the Grito de Dolores, a speech and battle cry uttered by Roman Catholic priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla in 1810 that inspired...
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  Was Johnny Appleseed a Real Person? American folklore is populated with larger-than-life heroes. But for those of us who have been out of school a long time, it can be difficult to remember which ones are fictional concoctions and which are real historical figures who have over time come to be credited with fanciful deeds. Paul...
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  Why Do Some People Call Football “Soccer”? One of the best-known differences between British and American English is the fact that the sport known as football in Great Britain is usually called soccer in the United States. Because the sport originated in England, it is often assumed that soccer is an Americanism. In fact, the word is...
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  How Are Hurricanes and Typhoons Named? The practice of naming storms has a long history. Before the 20th century, notable tropical cyclones (also called typhoons or hurricanes, depending on geography) were generally identified by the time when they occurred or the location where they struck. Thus, the San Mateo Hurricane of 1565—which,...
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  How Do Penguins Tell Each Other Apart? Imagine for a second that you’re an emperor penguin coming back to your colony after a swim. You need to find your mate and your chick, but how? Emperor penguins don’t make nests, so there’s no fixed spot where you can go and expect to meet up with your family. There’s just a huge crowd of penguins...
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  What’s the Difference Between Bison and Buffalo? It’s easy to understand why people confuse bison and buffalo. Both are large, horned, oxlike animals of the Bovidae family. There are two kinds of bison, the American bison and the European bison, and two forms of buffalo, water buffalo and Cape buffalo. However, it’s not difficult to distinguish...
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  Who Were the Assassins? In 1167 CE Benjamin of Tudela, a Spanish rabbi, visited Syria on a 13-year journey through the Middle East and Asia. His description of Syria includes what is probably the first European account of a group that would provoke horror and fascination in the West: the Assassins. Benjamin described a...
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  What’s the Difference Between HIV and AIDS? In the 1980s, a condition called acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, known more widely as AIDS, began to show itself within particular demographics in the United States. Initially referred to as GRID, or “gay-related immune deficiency,” for its prevalence among gay men, the condition meant a...
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  What Is the Emoluments Clause? The emoluments clause, also called the foreign emoluments clause, is a provision of the U.S. Constitution (Article I, Section 9, Paragraph 8) that generally prohibits federal officeholders from receiving any gift, payment, or other object or service of value from a foreign state or its rulers,...
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  Why Is Pizza So Popular in the U.S.? An easy group dinner or a tasty midnight snack, pizza is a staple in the U.S. Americans love pizza so much that they eat 100 acres of pizza a day. (If you don’t measure your pizza consumption in acres, that’s about 350 slices of pizza per second!) Did you ever wonder how this Italian flatbread—now...
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  Is Spontaneous Human Combustion Real? Late at night on Christmas Eve 1885, in the small farming town of Seneca, Illinois, a woman named Matilda Rooney burst into flames. She was alone in her kitchen when it happened. The fire quickly incinerated her entire body except her feet. The incident also claimed the life of her husband,...
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  Did Mozart Write “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star”? The composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is remembered for his precociousness, his prolific output, and his beautiful and memorable melodies. With all due respect to the famous opening bars of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, probably the most familiar melody associated with Mozart is known to English speakers...
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  How Do Black Holes Really Work? Science fiction has often relied on the concept of black holes as a plot device, painting them as portals to other universes or as vehicles for time travel. But what happens when we take the fiction out of it? What’s really going on inside those terrifying faraway entities? In short, black holes...
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  What Is Gerrymandering? In the United States, representatives to state assemblies and the U.S. House of Representatives are determined by the voters within voting districts in each state. Unlike the boundaries between individual U.S. states, voting district boundaries are redrawn every 10 years to coincide with the U.S....
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  What’s the Difference Between a President and a Prime Minister? World leaders can go by many titles: premier, chancellor, dear respected comrade. But two of the most common are president and prime minister. What differentiates them other than the latter’s hint of continental flavor? A prime minister, by definition, must be able to command a legislative...
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  Are Dogs Really Color-Blind? In film and television, whenever the perspective of a dog is shown, the scene is usually edited to be in black, white, and grey—bright red roses look dull and dark, and fresh-cut grass seems more artificial than natural. But is this common portrayal of a dog’s-eye view true to reality? Is man’s...
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  How Does the Electoral College Work? American voters go to the polls on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November, but the ballots that they cast do not directly elect the president. Instead, the will of the voters is reflected in the actions of state electors. These electors are selected by political parties at the state...
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  Are Cows Really Unable to Walk Down Stairs? It’s a common belief that cows are unable to walk down stairs. Many people think that you can get a cow up stairs but getting it back down isn’t going to happen without getting pretty creative. But is there actually any truth to this? To put it simply: it is very difficult for cows to walk down...
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  Why Do Languages Die? How would it feel to be the last person on Earth who speaks your language? For those of us whose native languages have millions of speakers, it’s almost impossible to imagine. And yet languages have come and gone throughout human history, and they continue to do so. Linguists estimate that of the...
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  Why Are Basketball Hoops 10 Feet High? Throughout gyms, parks, and driveways around the world, basketball hoops are almost always 10 feet (3 meters) off the ground. Some leagues for young children play on shorter hoops, but from junior high schools through the professional leagues, the game is played on hoops of the standard 10-foot...
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  Are Bats Rodents? With their fuzzy noses and rounded ears, bats are often called “rats with wings” or “flying rodents” by people who misunderstand them. But are they really related to the rodent family? Flatly, no. Bats are not even remotely related to mice or rats. Bats belong to the order Chiroptera, which is...
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  Is a Tomato a Fruit or a Vegetable? The age-old question actually has an answer—it’s both! Tomatoes are fruits that are considered vegetables by nutritionists. Botanically, a fruit is a ripened flower ovary and contains seeds. Tomatoes, plums, zucchinis, and melons are all edible fruits, but things like maple “helicopters” and...
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  Why Shouldn’t Babies Eat Honey? Children love sweets (a fair portion of children, at least). There’s just one sweet that the smaller and younger members of that crowd are strictly advised to never consume: honey. The World Health Organization is just one of many medical groups worldwide that agree that honey should not be fed to...
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  Do Lemmings Really Commit Mass Suicide? Lemmings are small creatures with wild reputations. In the 17th century, naturalists perplexed by the habit of Norway lemmings to suddenly appear in large numbers, seemingly out of nowhere, came to the conclusion that the animals were being spontaneously generated in the sky and then falling to...
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  Which Waters Do You Pass Through When You “Sail the Seven Seas”? Pirates and their sailing ships are inexorably linked to the romantic concept of the seven seas, and some variation of the phrase “sailing the seven seas” has existed since ancient mariners plied the Mediterranean Sea and the waters of the Middle East. But which bodies of water are those seven? A...
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  Lay, Lie, Lied, Lain: When Do We Use Which? Ah, the English language. It’s so full of extraneous words and rules, so fantastically complicated and confusing. One of the many common misunderstandings within the language stems from the confusion between lay and lie. Lay is a verb that commonly means “to put or set (something) down.” Lie is a...
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  Did Nero Really Fiddle as Rome Burned? According to his biographer Suetonius, the Roman emperor Nero "practiced every sort of obscenity,” ranging from incest to cruelty to animals to homicide. Nero was such a bad guy, in fact, that he may very well have been the first Antichrist in the Christian tradition. But did Nero actually fiddle...
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  Are Volcanoes Dangerous When They’re Not Erupting? It’s no surprise that an erupting volcano is one that should be avoided at all costs, given the extreme heat of the lava, the rocks pelting through the air, and the suffocating ash. But what about volcanoes that aren’t erupting? Can they also be dangerous? Volcanoes can be dangerous even when...
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  Why Is the Sky Blue? One of the perennial questions of childhood is “Why is the sky blue?” You may have asked this as a child, or you may have a child now asking you! The explanation begins with the ultimate source of light in our solar system: the Sun. Sunlight appears white, but this white light is made up of all the...
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  Where Did the Word Hippie Come From? As might be guessed, the word hippie is derived from the word hip, which conveys being up-to-date and fashionable. This meaning of hip is thought to have originated with African Americans during the Jive Era of the 1930s and ’40s. In the 1950s, “hip” was commonly applied to the Beats, such as Allen...
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  Are Green Potatoes Dangerous to Eat? When potatoes are stored in a warm bright place, the tubers detect that they might be in a suitable growing location and prepare to sprout. Chlorophyll production increases, which slowly tints the peel, and eventually some of the flesh, green. While chlorophyll is a harmless chemical, its presence...
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  Can You Drink Water from a Cactus? You may have heard that you can get water from a cactus if you are ever lost and dehydrated in a desert.* Sounds like a nice survival tip to store away, but is it really that easy? Turns out, a cactus is not actually a spine-covered basin of fresh water. Such a plant would not last long in an arid...
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  Why Is Saffron So Expensive? The ancient Greeks and Romans used saffron as perfume, and saffron is mentioned in the Chinese materia medica from the 1550s. Today the herb is also used as a cooking spice and a clothing dye. It’s now an essential part of some Eastern, Middle Eastern, and European dishes, such as the French...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Meteoroid, a Meteor, and a Meteorite? It’s a cool night, and you look up at the stars twinkling and serene in the dark sky. Then a light streaks across the sky and is gone. “Wow, a shooting star,” you think. “A meteor. Wait...or is it a meteorite? Or a meteoroid?” It is a meteor. A meteor is the streak of light that you see in the sky...
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  Why Are U.S. Elections Held on Tuesdays? For decades, federal elections in the United States have been held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Why this date? Originally, election days varied by state, but in 1845 a law was passed to set a single election day for the entire country. (At first, it applied only to...
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  Why Do Wolves Howl? There’s nothing quite so interesting as the social interactions in the wolf pack. Wolves live in packs of about 6 to 10 members. Pack formation is possible because wolves are highly social creatures that develop strong bonds with one another. One of the ways in which wolves interact is through...
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  Why Do We Yawn? According to some very attentive researchers, human beings tend to yawn about eight times per day. That number is probably larger if the day is spent with other people who yawn, or if it’s spent, say, reading an article about yawning. (Are you yawning yet?) The visual of someone yawning, or even...
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  Why Are So Many Koreans Named Kim? About 20 percent of South Korea’s population of 49.3 million (2015 est.) has the family name Kim. That’s about 10 million people. Lee is the second most common name, and Park (or Pak) is the third. All told, about 45 percent of Koreans have one of these three names! But why are Kims so particularly...
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  What Is an Aftershock? Earth is an active place full of storms, fast-moving river and ocean currents, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Continents are slowly but constantly moving, and the stresses that build up in the rocks that stem from pushing, pulling, and twisting forces eventually result in the sudden violent fracturing...
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  What Comes After Terabyte? Most people don’t spend time thinking about the smallest units of data, bits and bytes. But when it comes to data transfer or storage, most of us are concerned with the megabytes, gigabytes, or even terabytes. As data capacity increases, what size hard drive should you be looking for next? Data...
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  What Does “SPF” Mean? A day at the beach is incomplete without the sticky feel of sunscreen leaving white streaks across your cheeks. We wear it because we know we have to. Dermatologists and our mothers alike have instilled into our brains the need for a high SPF sunscreen since before we could walk. But what exactly...
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  Where Did the Peace Sign Come From? Occasionally, maligned as an anti-Christian symbol (an upside-down broken “Nero-cross”), a satanic character, or even a Nazi emblem, the iconic peace sign is apparently not so innocent to everyone. Thankfully, the symbol has a clear history, and its origin is not so controversial. The modern peace...
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  What’s the Difference Between Rabbits and Hares? If you’ve ever watched Looney Tunes, you may have noticed that the words bunny (which typically refers to young rabbits), rabbit (or wabbit, as spoken by Elmer Fudd), and hare (as shown in various clever episode titles) all referred to Bugs Bunny. While this was likely done to serve the stories,...
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  Why Do Some Foods Explode in the Microwave? You grumble as you grudgingly wipe the splattered spaghetti sauce or baked potato shrapnel from the inside of your microwave. What is it about these wonders of modern engineering that makes some foods more prone to exploding than other forms of cooking? Microwave ovens use microwave radiation (a...
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  Why Does Water Freeze from the Top Down? We drink water, we swim in it, we wash with it, and we cool things down with it. Because water is so common, many of us fail to notice just how strange it is compared to other substances. When we plop an ice cube or two into our drink during the warmer months, we watch it float above the liquid in...
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  Does Tomato Juice Really Neutralize Skunk Odor? The distribution of skunks is widespread across North America, and encounters involving them are on the increase as humans intrude into the woodlands and fields that are the skunk’s principal habitat. Because it is not unusual for encounters with skunks to end with a staggering odor and the rather...
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  Do Cats Cause Schizophrenia? Schizophrenia—any of several severe mental disorders having such symptoms as hallucinations, disorganized thinking, withdrawal from reality, or bizarre behavior—is produced by premature deterioration of the brain. This deterioration is usually a product of genetic predisposition combined with...
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  Why Do Sliced Apples Turn Brown? You open your lunch box to discover that the lovely apple you sliced this morning now appears unsightly and brown. Why does this happen? This unappetizing phenomenon is actually due to a chain of biochemical reactions known as “enzymatic browning.” When an apple is injured (or cut into pieces), the...
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  Can Eating Too Many Carrots Make Your Skin Turn Orange? You’ve been on a health kick and have been bingeing on baby carrots as your afternoon snack. You look in the mirror one day and notice a slight orangeness to your skin tone. Are you imagining things? Maybe not! Carrots and other orange fruits and vegetables are rich in a pigment known as...
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  Do Lie Detectors Actually Work? A staple of crime television shows is the image of a suspect sweating nervously in an interrogation room as the detectives use a polygraph test to decide whether the suspect is innocent or guilty. The polygraph, frequently shown on these television programs as a surefire way to determine a person’s...
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  Do We Really Use Only 10 Percent of Our Brain? It’s one of Hollywood’s favorite bits of pseudoscience: human beings use only 10 percent of their brain, and awakening the remaining 90 percent—supposedly dormant—allows otherwise ordinary human beings to display extraordinary mental abilities. In Phenomenon (1996), John Travolta gains the ability...
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  What’s the Difference Between Cane Sugar and Beet Sugar? White table sugar comes from either sugarcane or sugar beets and is usually sold without its plant source clearly identified. This is because—chemically speaking—the two products are identical. Refined table sugar is pure, crystallized sucrose, much in the same way that pure salt is simply sodium...
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  Do Fossil Fuels Really Come from Fossils? Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum (oil), natural gas, oil shales, bitumens, and tar sands and heavy oils. For modern life, these energy sources rival food and water in importance. Without fossil fuels, most automobiles are stranded, most of the lights go out, and our homes become hotter in...
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  Do Toilets in Different Hemispheres Flush in Different Directions? Imagine for a moment that you are trapped aboard a ship in the ocean without a map, a radio, GPS, or any landmarks. Is there a way to determine at least which hemisphere you are in? This scene played out in the movie Escape Plan (2013) in which the main character, Breslin, played by American actor...
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  Are There Really Right-Brained and Left-Brained People? Are you a logical, precise thinker, or would you say that you’re more free-spirited and artistic? If you’re the former, somebody’s probably told you at some point that you’re a left-brained person, and if you’re the latter, right-brained. The notion that the right half of the brain is the creative...
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  Is the Ozone Layer Finally Healing Itself? Earth is currently experiencing a host of environmental problems. Air and water pollution continue to plague much of the world; exotic plants, animals, and other organisms pop up in parts of the globe that have no natural defense against them; and, all the while, climate change lingers in the...
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  What Is an Injunction? In law, an injunction is an order by a court to one or more of the parties in a civil trial to refrain from doing, or less commonly to do, some specified act or acts (the former kind of injunction is called prohibitory or preventive, the latter mandatory). The usual purpose of an injunction is to...
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  What Is an Executive Order? In the United States the president acts as both head of state and head of government. Although the office gives its holder a tremendous amount of power, it does not grant the ability to enact laws. Unlike the prime minister in a parliamentary system, the U.S. president does not need to command a...
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  Why Does Cilantro Taste Like Soap to Some People? Cilantro (aka the leaves of the coriander plant) is a tasty herb to most people. A pleasing combination of flavors reminiscent of parsley and citrus, the herb is a common ingredient in many cuisines around the world. However, some people find cilantro revolting, including, famously, the chef Julia...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Gene and an Allele? A gene is a unit of hereditary information. Except in some viruses, genes are made up of DNA, a complex molecule that codes genetic information for the transmission of inherited traits. Alleles are also genetic sequences, and they too code for the transmission of traits. So, what it is the...
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  Can Eating Poppy Seeds Make You Fail a Drug Test? Poppy seeds are the edible nutritious seeds of the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum). The opium poppy is, of course, the source of opium as well as heroin, morphine, and codeine. Although the seeds themselves do not contain opiates, they are frequently contaminated with morphine residue during...
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  What’s the Difference Between Speed and Velocity? When describing the motion of objects in terms of distance, time, and direction, physicists use the basic quantities of speed and velocity. Two terms, two distinct meanings. Yet, not uncommonly, we hear these terms used interchangeably. So, what’s the difference? Why is it incorrect to use the...
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  Where Is “Old Zealand”? The map is littered with place names that are derived from older place names. New Brunswick. New Hampshire. New Orleans. The act of taking a location from an explorer’s country of origin, prefixing it with “New,” and assigning it to a place that scarcely resembles its namesake (”Old” Jersey is a...
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  What’s the Difference Between Morality and Ethics? Generally, the terms ethics and morality are used interchangeably, although a few different communities (academic, legal, or religious, for example) will occasionally make a distinction. In fact, Britannica’s article on ethics considers the terms to be the same as moral philosophy. While...
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  Can You Really Be Scared to Death? A friend jumps out at you when you’re turning a corner. Your heart starts pounding, and you gasp. “You scared me to death!” you say. Of course, the fact that you can utter this common phrase means that you are not deceased. But saying this is so common, in fact, that we have to ask the question: Is...
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  Why Are Planets Round? The Sun and all eight planets of the solar system are round. Why? The gravitational force of a planet’s mass pulls all of its material toward the center, smoothing out any jarring non-roundness. Many of the smaller bodies of the solar system are not round because their gravity is not enough to...
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  Why Are Flamingos Pink? Flamingos are long-legged wading birds that are usually covered in bright pink feathers. With a name that derives from the Spanish or Portuguese word meaning “flame-colored,” the birds are known for their vibrant appearance. The pink of their feathers, though it is their most famous quality, is not...
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  Why Does Heat Relax Your Muscles? Exercise is painful. As the cliché goes, “No pain, no gain.” When the body exerts itself, pumping action out of muscles to tear them down and build their mass, it’s left with a soreness. Doctors, coaches, and mothers all recommend heat for tense sore muscles—warm baths, moist towels, hot-water...
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  Why Are There Only 28 Days in February? Each month in the modern Gregorian calendar consists of at least 28 days. That number would be a nicely rounded 30 were it not for February. While every month besides the second in the calendar contains at least 30 days, February falls short with 28 (and 29 on a leap year). So why is the most...
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  Where Does the Concept of a “Grim Reaper” Come From? For thousands of years, various cultures have had figures to represent death. One of the most common and enduring of these is the Grim Reaper—usually a skeletal figure, who is often shrouded in a dark, hooded robe and carrying a scythe to “reap” human souls. But how and when did this imagery come...
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  What’s the Difference Between Rhythmic and Artistic Gymnastics? The Olympic Games features dozens of sports in its competitive lineup, including multiple disciplines of singular sports. For some of these disciplines, the differences between them are easy to spot—cycling road is obviously different from cycling track in the arena where the competitions are held....
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  What Is the Difference Between a Peptide and a Protein? Proteins and peptides are fundamental components of cells that carry out important biological functions. Proteins give cells their shape, for example, and they respond to signals transmitted from the extracellular environment. Certain types of peptides play key roles in regulating the activities of...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Résumé and a CV? Preparing a summary of work experience and skills is a critical part of the job-seeking process. But for young job seekers, fresh out of high school, college, or postgraduate programs, one of the first obstacles encountered is whether you should prepare a résumé or a CV. But what is the difference...
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  Why Do Bananas Turn Brown? The life cycle of a banana is a colorful one—it starts with a deep green, changes to a delicious yellow, and ends (if it’s not eaten beforehand) at an unappetizing brown. But what causes this color change, and what makes a banana go from green all the way to the dark side? As it turns out, bananas...
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  How Is Diving Scored? The Summer Olympic Games mean that the graceful sport of diving is once again in the international spotlight. The individual and synchronized events on the platform and springboard showcase the aerial talents of these athletes, although it can be hard to tell how some dives are better than others....
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  Why Does Drinking Give You a Hangover? While we seem to know a lot about alcoholic beverages and their consumption, scientific research on hangovers is surprisingly limited. The current working theories offer only partial explanations or have been contradicted by research. So we don’t really know what causes hangovers, but we have some...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Turtle and a Tortoise? What is a tortoise anyway? Is it just a fancy way to say “turtle”? Well, actually, there’s a meaningful difference between tortoises and other turtles. All tortoises are in fact turtles—that is, they belong to the order Testudines or Chelonia, reptiles having bodies encased in a bony shell—but not...
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  How Fast Is the World’s Fastest Human? In 2009 Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt set the world record in the 100-meter sprint at 9.58 seconds. For those of us more accustomed to sitting than sprinting, to translate this feat into terms of speed is to simply underscore the stunning nature of Bolt’s performance. Speed is the rate at which an...
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  What Is the “Ides” of March? You may have heard the phrase “beware the Ides of March,” but what is an Ides and what’s there to fear? The Ides is actually a day that comes about every month, not just in March—according to the ancient Roman calendar, at least. The Romans tracked time much differently than we do now, with months...
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  Is It Really Dangerous to Swim After Eating? Common wisdom holds that it is unsafe to swim after eating unless one waits for some prescribed period of time—usually between 30 minutes and two hours. The belief is that the pylorus, the gate between the stomach and intestines, will cramp up and render the swimmer unable to stay above water....
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  How Do We Know How Far Away the Stars Are? The closest star, Proxima Centauri, is 4.24 light-years away. A light-year is 9.44 trillion km, or 5.88 trillion miles. That is an incredibly large distance. Walking to Proxima Centauri would take 950 million years. If you turned it up and went as fast as Apollo 11 went to the Moon, it would still...
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  Why Does Salt Melt Ice? More than 20 million tons of salt are used every year to melt snow and ice in cold northern regions. But how does salt do it? First, it’s important to understand a bit about H2O in the winter. Thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit (0 degrees Celsius) is its freezing point—that is, when water reaches 32 °F,...
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  What’s the Difference Between Jam, Jelly, and Preserves? Before the invention of the at-home refrigerator in 1913, it was rare to find a strawberry in the winter or a gala apple in the spring—unless it had been preserved. Jams, jellies, and preserves were developed by industrious fruit eaters of days past as methods of keeping fruits fresh out of season....
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  Why Do Television Shows Use Laugh Tracks? Imagine that you’re the creator and show runner of the newest hit comedy show on television. Only it isn’t a hit yet, and your live studio audience isn’t giving you the hearty laughs the show deserves. Do you film the show all over again, hoping that this time the audience will laugh? Or is there...
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  Where Do Honeybees Go in the Winter? Have you ever seen a honeybee in the winter? Most people in temperate climates probably have not. Without blankets, fires, or adjustable thermostats, honeybees have to stick together pretty closely to stay warm (and alive) in the winter. When temperatures in the winter drop below 50 °F (10 °C),...
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  What Makes a Species Endangered? Over 7,000 species around the world are considered endangered. That number doesn’t even include the plants, animals, and other life-forms that are listed by some scientists as vulnerable, critically endangered, or extinct in the wild—all rankings that mean a species is inching closer and closer to...
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  Who Invented the Internet? What most of us think of as the Internet is really just the pretty face of the operation—browser windows, websites, URLs, and search bars. But the real Internet, the brain behind the information superhighway, is an intricate set of protocols and rules that someone had to develop before we could get...
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  Are the Middle East and the Near East the Same Thing? What do you call the region that encompasses southwestern Asia and northeastern Africa: the Middle East or the Near East? Middle East essentially supplanted Near East in the early 20th century, although the two are now used interchangeably among English speakers. So, for all intents and purposes,...
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  Why Are There Nine Justices on the U.S. Supreme Court? The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) was established by Congress in 1789 and acts as the head of the U.S.’s federal court system. The Supreme Court is the court of last resort, and most of its significance arises from its being an appellate body—that is, a body that has the power to...
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  How Do Tornadoes Form? The average tornado—a mostly harmless cyclone of air that connects a storm cloud above and Earth’s surface below—has a lifespan of only a few minutes. However, when they move away from the average, tornadoes are considered some of the most destructive weather events in the world. The wildest of...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Bee and a Wasp? Ask a summertime picnicker what their biggest annoyance is, and the answer will likely be “bees.” Landing on uncovered food and drink with impunity, these insects aren’t particularly inclined to leave once they’ve tasted the ambrosial offerings that constitute the average picnic. If irate diners...
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  Why Do Onions Make You Cry? You’re happily chopping onions for your dinner when BAM! Your eyes are stinging, and tears are running down your face. Maybe the burning gets so bad you have to step away! Why are onions such jerks sometimes? Well, it actually comes down to some pretty fascinating biochemistry. Before it found its...
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  Will We Ever Run Out of Sudoku Puzzles? Realistically, no! There are 6,670,903,752,021,072,936,960 possible solvable Sudoku grids that yield a unique result (that’s 6 sextillion, 670 quintillion, 903 quadrillion, 752 trillion, 21 billion, 72 million, 936 thousand, 960 in case you were wondering). That’s way more than the number of stars...
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  What Makes a Wave Go Rogue? Many a tall tale has been inspired by the world’s oceans, from stories of mysterious sea monsters to legends about ghost ships like the Flying Dutchman. While all are capable of inducing “ocean aversion” in even the most intrepid terrestrial explorer, no maritime legend strikes fear into the...
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  What’s the Difference Between Great Britain and the United Kingdom? The names Great Britain and United Kingdom are often used interchangeably. However, they are not actually synonymous. The reason for the two names, and the difference between them, has to do with the expansive history of the British Isles. The British Isles are a group of islands off the...
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  Why Is a Group of Molecules Called a Mole? It’s one of the first things you learn in chemistry: Atoms and molecules are so small that even a few grams of a substance contains so many atoms or molecules that counting them by the billions or trillions is just as pointless as counting them one by one. Chemists therefore use a unit called the...
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  Is It ISIS or ISIL? English-speaking countries and news agencies have an aversion to long names. So when the jihadist militant group that called itself الدولة الإسلامية في العراق والشام, or “The Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham,” entered the world political sphere, it was referred to with a simple acronym. Well, it...
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  Why Is a Baker’s Dozen 13? Request a dozen eggs from a farmer, a dozen steaks from a butcher, or a dozen pencils from a traveling office supplies salesman, and you will almost certainly receive 12 of your chosen item (counting errors do happen). But a baker’s dozen is commonly understood to mean 13. Are bakers just bad at...
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  Why Do Leaves Fall in Autumn? In temperate regions of the world, autumn is marked by the brightly colored foliage that slowly drops from trees and shrubs to carpet the ground. But why do some plants shed their leaves before winter? It turns out autumnal leaf drop is a form of self-protection. While evergreen plants in cold...
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  Why Is Pluto No Longer a Planet? In 2006 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) demoted the much-loved Pluto from its position as the ninth planet from the Sun to one of five “dwarf planets.” The IAU had likely not anticipated the widespread outrage that followed the change in the solar system’s lineup. When the announcement...
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  What’s the Difference Between Seals and Sea Lions? Are seals and sea lions the same animal? Technically, they are in the same taxonomical suborder of pinnipeds (Pinnipedia), which comprises seals, sea lions, and walruses. But seals and sea lions are in different taxonomical families owing to some key anatomical differences. The most notable...
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  Will a Suction Cup Work in Space? No, it won’t. We’ve all seen pictures of astronauts walking in space, and they are always prevented from drifting away from the spaceship to their death by a tether of some sort. But if you want to avoid getting tangled up in a tether, why not just use a suction cup? The problem is the lack of air...
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  Does Listening to Mozart Make Kids Smarter? One of the most tenacious myths in parenting is the so-called Mozart effect, which says that listening to music by the Austrian composer Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart can increase a child’s intelligence. The idea has been promoted by advocates for arts education and by retailers who sell special...
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  What Do Eggs Have to Do with Easter? Easter is the principal festival of the Christian church, a celebration of the Resurrection of Jesus Christ on the third day after his Crucifixion. So where do the colored eggs fit in? The egg was a widely used premodern and pre-Christian symbol of fertility and restoration. European “Pagans” (a...
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  What Is the Difference Between South America and Latin America? Christopher Columbus thought that he had found a shortcut to Asia when he reached terra firma in the Caribbean in 1492, but 10 years later Amerigo Vespucci realized the lands in question constituted a New World, at least for Europeans. As a result, the bulk of the Western Hemisphere was named in...
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  How Did the Rainbow Flag Become a Symbol of LGBTQ Pride? June has long been recognized as LGBTQ Pride Month, in honor of the Stonewall riots, which took place in New York City in June 1969. During Pride Month, it is not uncommon to see the rainbow flag being proudly displayed as a symbol for the LGBTQ rights movement. But how did that flag become a...
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  What’s the Difference Between Alligators and Crocodiles? Don’t know a gator from a crocodile? You’re probably not alone. Although these large reptiles belong to different families, they share a number of similarities, including long snouts, powerful tails, short legs, and bony-plated backs. But there are some easy ways to tell them apart. The first is...
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  Do Camels Store Water in Their Humps? Camels have long been known for their ability to go weeks at a time without needing to drink water—an ability that makes them particularly useful pack animals for people traveling across arid environments and that earned them the nickname “ships of the desert.” Camels are also known for their...
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  What’s the Difference Between Asian and African Elephants? You may have been taught that there are only two species of elephants: the African elephant and the Asian elephant. In 2000, scientists recategorized the African elephant species into two distinct species, the larger being the African bush elephant (or African savanna elephant) and the smaller...
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  What’s the Difference Between the Deep Web and the Dark Web? When you think of the deep web, what comes to mind? Illegal activity? Phishing and scams? Bitcoins? Well, you’d be kind of right…and kind of wrong. These are examples of things found in the dark web, a collection of websites that have hidden IP addresses and may require a specific software to...
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  Can Apple Seeds Kill You? As you watch someone carelessly munching on an apple core, some vague alarm bells go off in your head. Didn’t you hear somewhere that apple seeds are poisonous? Well, apple seeds can indeed be poisonous, but it takes quite a few of them to kill you and only if they have been crushed. Apple seeds...
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  Why Is There an R in Mrs.? If we pronounce the title Mrs. as “missus,” why is there an r in it? Despite its pronunciation, the abbreviation Mrs. is derived from the title mistress, which accounts for that confusing extra letter. Mistress is the counterpart of master, which—you guessed it—is abbreviated to Mr. (Of course,...
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  What is Hexavalent Chromium (or Chromium-6)? Many people know hexavalent chromium as a silent antagonist in the biopic Erin Brockovich (2000), which starred American actress Julia Roberts as a legal assistant taking on a company accused of polluting the water of rural Hinkley, California, which resulted in elevated rates of cancer and death...
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  What Does the Rosetta Stone Say? In 1799—about a year into Napoleon Bonaparte’s occupation of Egypt—French engineers doing demolition work in the delta town of El-Rashid (Europeanized as “Rosetta”) made a remarkable find. While tearing down a wall, they unearthed a large black granite stone with parallel inscriptions in two...
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  Why Does “K” Stand for a Strikeout in Baseball? The box score of a baseball game is filled with all kinds of shorthand, which is necessitated by the desire for a concise encapsulation of the contest and by the constraints of print space, since box scores were found only in newspapers for the first century of their existence. As a result,...
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  Why Do You Have to Turn Off Electronic Devices on an Airplane? Mobile telephones, tablets, portable video game units, and other electronic devices are ubiquitous 21st-century time killers. We can play games on them, communicate with family and friends on them, and browse the Internet on them. One would think that they would come in very handy to pass the time...
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  What Is Antimatter? What do you get when you combine the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics? No joke here—just a revolutionary concept coined by Nobel Prize winner P.A.M. Dirac after he discovered a strange disparity in an equation. What exactly was Dirac’s equation? Well, in short, it was a vast expansion of...
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  Why Can’t You Tickle Yourself? At some point in your life you’ve probably been tickled—repeatedly touched in a way that induced smiling, laughter, and involuntary movements. Ticklishness can occur in many places on the body, but the most common are the ribcage, the armpit, and the sole of the foot. Tickling usually occurs in the...
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  Why Is the Ocean Salty? “Water, water everywhere,/ Nor any drop to drink.” This famous line, spoken by the lost sailor in Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, sums up one of the basic difficulties of life at sea: humans need water to survive, but seawater is too salty to drink. In fact, most of...
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  How Are Currency Exchange Rates Determined? If you travel internationally, you most likely will need to exchange your own currency for that of the country you are visiting. The amount of money you’ll get for a given amount of your country’s currency is based on internationally determined exchange rates. Exchange rates can be either fixed or...
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  What’s the Difference Between Modern and Contemporary Art? Have you ever wondered about the difference between modern and contemporary art? Or wondered if there even is a difference between the two? Well, first of all, the two terms are not interchangeable. There is a difference, and it is based on rough date ranges established by art historians, art...
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  Why Is Alcohol Measured by Proof? If you get a bottle of vodka from your local liquor store, you’ll probably see two different numbers telling you how much alcohol it contains. The first is an alcohol by volume (ABV) percentage, which is relatively intuitive to understand: it’s the percentage of alcohol in the overall liquid and is...
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  How Do Deserts Form? The standard many college textbooks use to define a desert is: an area receiving less than 10 inches (250 mm) of precipitation per year. But why do these areas get so little precipitation in the first place? Geographically speaking, most deserts are found on the western sides of continents or—in...
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  What Is a Modern Pentathlon? While Summer Olympic sports such as swimming, gymnastics, and football are more popular with worldwide audiences, there are other Olympic games that most people know little about. An event since the 1912 Olympics, the modern pentathlon is often forgotten and has a name that might turn off potential...
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  Can Lightning Strike the Same Place Twice? “Lightning never strikes the same place twice” is a common phrase you’ve probably heard before, often used to reassure someone that whatever bad thing has happened, it won’t happen again. It can even be used when something good happens, such as winning the lottery, but the underlying truth remains....
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  How Does Wi-Fi Work? Wi-Fi has become an integral part of our fast-paced everyday lives. Thanks to Wi-Fi, we no longer have to be tethered to the Internet with cables. But have you ever stopped to wonder how it works? Wi-Fi uses radio waves to transmit information between your device and a router via frequencies. Two...
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  What Was the Little Ice Age? When most people think of ice ages, or “glacial ages,” they often envision cavemen, woolly mammoths, and vast plains of ice—such as those that occurred during the Pleistocene (about 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago) or the late Carboniferous and early Permian periods (about 300 million years ago)....
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  How Do Microwaves Work? Microwave ovens were life altering from the moment they began humming and heating in homes of the 1970s. The sprinter to the conventional oven’s cross-country runner, microwaves quickened the process of cooking and reheating meals, saving time and increasing the potential for leisure over work. The...
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  Why Do Sharks Attack? Despite misleading media reports suggesting that shark attacks are on the rise, such assaults on humans are exceedingly rare and even more rarely are fatal. While the number of recorded shark attacks has risen in recent years, the rate per capita has not. Our species is simply undergoing a massive...
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  Why Do We Have Earwax? Sticky, gooey, oftentimes orange, and homemade within the ears—earwax is considered a gross nuisance that people tend to frequently remove and clean from the body. Whether it’s by cotton swab, an ill-advised and dangerous method, or by an otolaryngologist, people go to great lengths for...
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  Is "Holland" the Same Place as "the Netherlands"? People often use the terms "Holland" and "the Netherlands" interchangeably, but they don’t match up exactly. The official name of the northwestern European land of tulips and windmills is "Koninkrijk der Nederlanden," or Kingdom of the Netherlands. It was founded in 1579 as a union of various...
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  Does Trench Warfare Still Exist? The phrase “trench warfare” immediately conjures images of the mud and slaughter of the Western Front during World War I. Millions died in fruitless offensives that saw men “go over the top” into withering machine gun fire. Ultimately, inventions such as tanks and airplanes allowed troops to move...
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  Where Does the Name Europe Come From? Europe existed as a conceptual construct long before geographers began arguing whether there are seven continents or six (the latter model considers Europe and Asia to be a single continent). The ancient Greeks divided the world into three major units: Europe, Asia, and Libya, the last of which...
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  How Long Is the Amazon River? The Amazon is undeniably one of the world’s greatest rivers. It is the largest river by volume, and its basin is home to the Amazon Rainforest, the world’s richest and most-varied biological reservoir. The Amazon might also be the world’s longest river—depending on whom you ask. Most scientists...
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  Who Becomes President After the President and Vice President? The current order of presidential succession in the United States is: Vice President Speaker of the House President Pro Tempore of the Senate Secretary of State Secretary of the Treasury Secretary of Defense Attorney General Secretary of the Interior Secretary of Agriculture Secretary of Commerce...
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  What’s Inside the Great Pyramid? According to Napoleonic legend, the future emperor of France emerged from Egypt’s Great Pyramid pale and shaken, having spent hours alone in the King’s Chamber. He never revealed what had rattled him, but supposedly the episode changed his life. Whether or not the story is true, it certainly...
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  Just How Many Oceans Are There? Notwithstanding that Europa and Enceladus (moons of Jupiter and Saturn, respectively) are both covered in ice, Earth is the true water world of the solar system. Some 71 percent of Earth’s surface is covered by saltwater oceans, and the continents themselves possess lakes, rivers, and, in some...
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  What Is Gaslighting? “Gaslighting” is an elaborate and insidious technique of deception and psychological manipulation, usually practiced by a single deceiver, or “gaslighter,” on a single victim over an extended period. Its effect is to gradually undermine the victim’s confidence in his ability to distinguish truth...
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  Why Do Leaves Change Colors in the Fall? In many places around the world, autumn is marked by the slow, beautiful change of green foliage to vibrant reds, oranges, yellows, and purples. Green leaves appear green because of the presence of the pigment chlorophyll, which is key to photosynthesis. In temperate regions, cold winters pose a...
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  What’s the Difference Between Veins and Arteries? Veins and arteries are major players in the circulatory system of all vertebrates. They work together to transport blood throughout the body, helping to oxygenate and remove waste from every cell with each heartbeat. Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart, while veins carry oxygen-depleted...
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  How the Border Between the United States and Mexico Was Established Despite the acceptance by many Americans in the 1840s of the concept of Manifest Destiny—that it was the providential right of the United States to expand to the Pacific Ocean—the future boundary between the United States and Mexico was anything but a foregone conclusion. Great Britain, with whom...
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  Why Doesn’t the U.S. Use the Metric System? The United States Constitution states, in Section 8 of Article I, that Congress shall have the power to “fix the standard of weights and measures.” Deciding on a system to regulate how the U.S. measured objects, compared lengths, and weighed itself was without a doubt a high priority for the...
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  What’s the Difference Between Hispanic and Latino? Latin America, extending from the deserts of northern Mexico to the icy wilds of Tierra del Fuego in Chile and Argentina, encompasses many diverse countries and peoples. Though most of these countries are largely Catholic and Spanish-speaking, thanks to a shared history of colonization by Spain,...
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  What Causes Tsunamis? As natural disasters go, tsunamis are among the worst in terms of overall destruction and loss of life. They rival earthquakes in their ability to suddenly devastate a wide area. In recent years massive tsunamis have caused extensive damage in northern Sumatra and Thailand, parts of Japan’s Honshu...
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  Did Marie-Antoinette Really Say “Let Them Eat Cake”? “Let them eat cake” is the most famous quote attributed to Marie-Antoinette, the queen of France during the French Revolution. As the story goes, it was the queen’s response upon being told that her starving peasant subjects had no bread. Because cake is more expensive than bread, the anecdote has...
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  Why Do Movie Theaters Serve Popcorn? The savory smell. The crunchy bite. The salty kick. The buttery finish. Americans will recognize the smell and flavor of their favorite moviegoing snack anywhere. Why is it that we feast our taste buds on these crisp kernels while our eyes feast on the big screen? A few converging aspects made...
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  What’s So Special About Stradivarius Violins? Violins built by the Italian violin maker Antonio Stradivari (1644?–1737) have a special mystique in the classical music world. They’re also extremely expensive. In 2011 an anonymous buyer paid the record sum of $15.9 million for a violin—named “Lady Blunt” after Lady Anne Blunt, one of its...
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  What’s the Difference Between Whiskey and Whisky? What About Scotch, Bourbon, and Rye? Have you ever heard the traditional folk song “Whiskey in the Jar”? Or is that “Whisky in the Jar”? Just what is the difference between “whiskey” and “whisky”? And while we are at it, how do Scotch, bourbon, and rye figure in all of this? First of all, they are all types of whiskey (or whisky—more...
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  What’s the Difference Between a Migrant and a Refugee? Migrant and refugee are just two of the many terms we use to describe people who are seeking new homes in other countries. These two terms in particular are hot topics around the world owing to large numbers of people fleeing violence, poverty, political repression, and environmental disasters in...
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  What’s the Difference Between Weather and Climate? Adding confusion to the politics of climate change and global warming in the press is the assumption that the terms weather and climate are at some level interchangeable. The two terms are confused with one another, presumably because the same elements (solar radiation, temperature, humidity, wind...
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  Why Do Tennis Players Wear White at Wimbledon? The Wimbledon Championships are the oldest and most prestigious of the four tennis Grand Slam tournaments. (The other three are the Australian, French, and U.S. opens.) As such, Wimbledon is awash in long-lasting traditions and features, such as the habit of calling the men’s and women’s...
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  What Causes the Northern and Southern Lights? The auroras—the aurora borealis (or northern lights) in the Northern Hemisphere, and the aurora australis (the southern lights) in the Southern Hemisphere—are brilliant natural spectacles that can be seen in the evening sky especially at higher latitudes. Unlike other phenomena of the night sky,...
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  Where Did the Idea for the Magic 8 Ball Come From? In the U.S., fortune-telling novelty toys such as the sleepover classic Ouija Board and the tiny red Fortune Teller Fish were huge hits in the second half of the 20th century. One of the most-popular such items among kids and adults was the Magic 8 Ball. Other than its being a pivotal and dangerous...
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  What’s the Difference Between Llamas and Alpacas? Llamas and alpacas have been used by humans for transportation and fleece production for a few thousand years. Both species are primarily found in Peru and Bolivia and are part of the camel family, Camelidae. Alpacas and llamas are two of the four lamoid species—the other two species, vicuña and...
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  Why Do Plants Wilt? You leave for work in the morning and your plant looks perfectly happy, but by the time you come home, it’s sad and droopy. So why do plants wilt? Usually because they are thirsty! Many nonwoody plants rely almost exclusively on water pressure, or turgor, within their cells to keep them erect....
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  How the Dred Scott Decision Affected the U.S. Election of 1860 The Dred Scott decision of 1857 put a match to the tinderbox of sectional conflict over the future of slavery, the most important issue in the mid-19th century United States. It exploded the hard-won rules under which the expansion of the United States had been undertaken over the previous four or...
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  How Did the Sperm Whale Get Its Name? Sperm whales (Physeter catodon), or cachalots, are the largest of the toothed whales, with males up to 19 meters (62 feet) long—more than five times the length of a large elephant—and females up to 12 meters (39 feet) in length. They are easily recognized by their enormous square head and narrow...
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  What Is the Difference Between Criminal Law and Civil Law? In the United States, there are two bodies of law whose purpose is to deter or punish serious wrongdoing or to compensate the victims of such wrongdoing. Criminal law deals with behavior that is or can be construed as an offense against the public, society, or the state—even if the immediate victim...
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  How Deadly Is Quicksand? It used to be a standard trope in action movies, although you don’t see it much these days: a patch of apparently solid ground in the jungle that, when stepped on, turns out to have the consistency of cold oatmeal. The unlucky victim starts sinking down into the muck; struggling only makes it...
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  How Radioactive Isotopes are Used in Medicine Radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes, are species of chemical elements that are produced through the natural decay of atoms. Exposure to radiation generally is considered harmful to the human body, but radioisotopes are highly valuable in medicine, particularly in the diagnosis and treatment of...
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  Pirates, Privateers, Corsairs, Buccaneers: What’s the Difference? In casual conversation the words pirate, buccaneer, and corsair tend to be used more or less interchangeably. Some people, possibly to prove they paid attention in history class, also throw around privateer. But do these words actually mean the same thing, matey? Not really. Pirate is the most...
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  Why Do Airlines Overbook Seats on Flights? Traveling by air can be a stressful activity. There’s turbulence, baggage limitations, intrusions by airport security, and the overhyped fear of plane crashes. If these annoyances weren’t enough, once a passenger finally makes it to their gate, they face the possibility of being “bumped”—that is,...
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  Was the Big Bang Actually an Explosion? The big-bang theory was first proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1927 sans its contemporary name, which was coined in the 1950s. The common name has allowed for the beginnings of our universe to be too often depicted as a massive explosion similar to that of an epic supernova. But was our universe...
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  How Do You Tell the Difference Between Total, Annular, Solar, and Lunar Eclipses? Traditionally, eclipses are divided into two major types: solar and lunar. Solar eclipses occur when the Moon passes between Earth and the Sun, leaving a moving region of shadow on Earth’s surface. Lunar eclipses occur when Earth passes between the Sun and the Moon, casting a shadow on the Moon....
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  How Is Coffee Decaffeinated? Coffee "beans" (they aren’t really beans) naturally contain caffeine. Although a jolt of caffeine is exactly what many people are looking for when they reach for a cup of joe, the beans can be processed to remove most of the stimulant, creating a drink that can be enjoyed at night without losing...
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  Is Climate Change Real? By definition, climate change is the periodic modification of Earth’s climate due to changes in the atmosphere and interactions between the atmosphere and other geologic, chemical, biological, and geographic factors within the Earth system. All living things respond to climate and changes in the...
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  What’s the Difference Between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms? Angiosperms and gymnosperms are the two major groups of vascular seed plants. Angiosperms, which are flowering plants, are the largest and most diverse group within the kingdom Plantae. With around 300,000 species, they represent approximately 80 percent of all the known green plants now living....
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  Did Duchess Anastasia Survive Her Family’s Execution? The 1956 movie Anastasia offered a more hopeful ending to the decades of mystery that followed the execution of Russia’s last tsar, Nicholas II, and his family in 1918. In the movie, his youngest daughter, Anastasia, is suffering from amnesia and goes by the name Anna. Ingrid Bergman played Anna,...
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  Has Pink Always Been a “Girly” Color? If you see newborn babies at a hospital in the U.S., you’ll most likely see them in pink or blue outfits to mark their sex (often conflated with gender identity). Has the U.S. always used colors to signify boys or girls? The short answer is no. Pastel colors for baby clothing—including blue and...
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  Are There Laws on the High Seas? All governments manage their territories with laws. This is easy enough to understand with respect to solid ground: when you look at a map, borders usually mark where the authority of one country ends and another’s begins. But what about maritime countries, which either border or are completely...
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  Do Plants Have Sexes? The idea of “male” and “female” in plants is a bit mysterious to many people, and there are several variations on the theme throughout the plant kingdom. In plants, as with most animals, the male parts are associated with production of sperm, and the female parts are associated with eggs. Thus, in...
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  How Secret Is Top Secret? In an era of hacks, leaks, whistle-blowers, and media organizations that appear to have become information launderers for Russian intelligence agencies, it is important to understand what a state secret really is. It is equally important to recognize that this definition transcends political...
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  Is Australia an Island? At about 3 million square miles (7.7 million square km), Australia is the smallest continent on Earth. In fact, it’s closer in size to Greenland than it is to South America. Does that make Australia an island like Greenland? Although Australia is sometimes called an “island continent,” most...
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  Are Black and White Colors? Color, in terms of pigment, is every shade and hue found in a brand new box of crayons (and any combination you could make from them). To put it in scientific terms, however, color is simply the range of visible light that humans can see. Different colors, such as red and orange, and other...
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  Who Wrote the King James Bible? “Let there be light.” “My brother’s keeper.” “Fight the good fight.” A number of the most well-known phrases in the English language originated not in novels, plays, or poems but in a seminal translation of the Bible, the King James Version (KJV), which was published in 1611 at the behest of King...
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  What’s the Difference Between Venomous and Poisonous? When people talk about dangerous snakes like black mambas and cobras, at least one person in the conversation will ask whether the snake is poisonous. Bolstered by medical references and haphazard mentions on television and elsewhere in the mass media, the phrase “poisonous snake” has been drilled...
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  Can You Really Sweat Out Toxins? You’re in your weekly yoga class, inverted and stretching out your body as piped-in sitar music plinks soothingly in the background. Concentrating, you ease further into the position. A drop of sweat slides down the bridge of your nose and pools on your yoga mat. The instructor croons, “That’s...
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  6 Animals That Eat Their Mates Mating is a dangerous game in the animal world. In many cases, the males may end up dead. But they aren’t just killed by competing males. In some species, they are not only killed by the bigger and stronger females, but they also are eaten. It takes a lot of energy to give birth to offspring, and...
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  31 Masterpieces of Painting in Madrid There is evidence of prehistoric settlement at the site now occupied by Madrid, but the city’s origins can be more confidently traced back to at least the 10th century CE. This long history is echoed in the rich collections of the museums found there today. The 32 paintings listed here are just a...
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  A Timeline of the World in 8 Maps These maps highlight notable milestones in human history from 3200 BCE to 1500 CE, a period that stretches from the development of stone tools in Australia to the building of the palace complex at Machu Picchu in South America. list, maps, timeline, visualization, world history, human history,...
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  5 Quizzes That Will Tell You Whether You Should Have Been a Scientist Marie Curie, Albert Einstein, Donna Strickland—all of them proved their worth as scientists by winning a Nobel Prize. You (probably) haven’t. But maybe you should have. Do you wonder whether you really should have become a physicist? Maybe a chemist? If you ace all of these quizzes, you’ll need to...
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  Pennsylvania Wants to Show You These 6 Places Independence Hall, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater, and the Allegheny County Courthouse are just a few of the buildings that tell the story of Pennsylvania. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Mark Irving...
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  7 Delicious Fruits That Made Their Way to California (and How They Did It) Some of these fruits were first grown in California, and some took thousands of years to get there. Learn their histories here. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these foods first appeared in 1001 Foods You Must Try Before You Die, edited by Frances Case (2008). Writers’ names appear in...
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  14 Significant Paintings at Nationalmuseum in Sweden Nationalmuseum in Sweden’s capital city, Stockholm, has roots in the 18th century, but the museum as it is known today originated in the 1840s, when planning and construction of its current building began. Its collections of hundreds of thousands of artworks range from paintings and sculpture to...
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  8 Must-See Paintings at the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. Andrew Mellon donated more than 150 artworks that would become the core of the collection of the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.; he also donated money that would be used to build the museum’s first home, today called the West Building. The formal acceptance of his gifts by the U.S....
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  10 Paintings to Visit at the National Galleries of Scotland in Edinburgh The National Galleries of Scotland are made up of the Scottish National Gallery, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, and Scottish National Portrait Gallery, all in Edinburgh. The museums trace their history back to 1850, when construction began on the National Gallery. The paintings in this...
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  These 5 Incredible Paintings Are All Waiting for You in New York City An abstract painting that recalls Turner and Whistler. A different kind of icon. And a visual scholar of New York itself. Before you plan your next trip to New York City, take a moment to learn about these five incredible paintings that await your arrival. Earlier versions of the descriptions of...
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  Ireland Has It All, Including These 12 Incredible Feats of Architecture The 18th-century Castletown House is Ireland’s most notable country house, not least because it reportedly influenced the design of the White House in Washington, D.C. It’s just one of these 12 examples of significant buildings that are worth a visit in Ireland. Earlier versions of the descriptions...
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  7 Paintings You Have to See at the Art Institute of Chicago The Art Institute of Chicago is one of the world’s great encyclopedic art museums. Its collection of more than 300,000 artworks covers the history of art across multiple cultures and eras. Among its strengths is its European and American art; this list highlights just a few notable works from that...
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  7 Must-See Buildings in Brussels Brussels is the capital of Belgium and the seat of the European Union. That makes it a hub of international governance and business, and the city shows its cosmopolitanism through its architecture. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See...
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  26 Historic Buildings to Visit the Next Time You’re in Paris Paris is known today as the City of Lights. Thousands of years ago it was called Midwater-Dwelling—which is how its Latin name, Lutetia, can be translated. This list covers just a few of the most notable structures built in Paris over all of these years. The descriptions of these buildings appear...
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  8 Deadliest Wars of the 21st Century Political theorist Francis Fukuyama famously proclaimed that the end of the Cold War marked “the end of history,” a triumph of capitalist, liberal Western democracy over competing ideologies. It was believed that 21st-century humanity would be a globalized post-conflict society moving in...
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  11 of the World’s Most Famous Warplanes World history is often defined by wars. During the 20th and 21st centuries, aircraft came to play increasingly important roles in determining the outcome of battles as well as being deterrents to aggression. Military aircraft came of age during World War II, and their utility for both military and...
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  7 Amazing Historical Sites in Africa The African continent has long been inhabited and has some amazing historical sites to show for it. Check out these impressive examples of architecture, culture, and evolution. list, Great Zimbabwe, Olduvai Gorge, Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Leptis Magna, Timbuktu, Meroe, ThebesThis...
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  CC, The First Cloned Cat CC was the world’s first cloned pet. Here are five quick facts about this groundbreaking cat. list, animals, science, cloning, clone, cats, first, cat, kittens, copy, genetics, identicalMeet CC, short for Carbon Copy or Copy Cat (depending on who you ask). She was the world’s first cloned pet. CC...
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  6 Wars of Independence People usually don’t take kindly to commands and demands. For as long as people have been overpowering one another, there has been resistance to power. And for as long as states have been ruling one another, there have been wars of independence. Here is a list of six groups of people or individual...
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  12 Novels Considered the “Greatest Book Ever Written” Literary critics, historians, avid readers, and even casual readers will all have different opinions on which novel is truly the “greatest book ever written.” Is it a novel with beautiful, captivating figurative language? Or one with gritty realism? A novel that has had an immense social impact? Or...
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  7 Canceled or Reintroduced Olympic Sports Do you ever wonder how long sprint kayaking will remain an Olympic sport? Do you find yourself asking, “Whatever happened to the Olympic tug-of-war event?” The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has been making important decisions since the first modern Olympic Games in 1896—namely, which sports...
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  Working Like a Dog: 7 Animals with Jobs The number one job for many animals is often simply being cute. However, for a few critters, working it means actual work—like detecting mines or taking out the trash or even predicting a seizure. In this list we’ve highlighted a few animals that have jobs ranging from the important to the unusual....
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  The Canadian Football League: 10 Claims to Fame The Canadian Football League (CFL) did not officially come into being until 1958, but Canadian teams have battled annually for the Grey Cup, which became the championship trophy of Canadian professional football, for more than a century—sometimes in snow, famously in fog, and always in a festive...
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  10 Famous Duels Duels have a long and colorful—though sometimes tragic—history. The origins of dueling are uncertain, but by the 16th century duels had become a popular means of settling real or imagined slights. Despite efforts to ban them, duels remained widespread for several centuries; the last one in France...
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  Behind the Scenes: 7 Times Downton Abbey Stealthily Taught You History The British historical drama program Downton Abbey has captivated audiences all over the world with its stories of the trials and tribulations of an aristocratic family, their servants, and the fate of their eponymous estate. Many of those stories, rooted in relationships and melodrama, transcend...
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  Watch Your Step: 6 Things You Can Fall Into This world is not made for the weak—neither in society nor in the physical world. There you are, making your way across the face of the earth day after day, trusting that, at the very least, the ground under your feet is solid. But is it? As it turns out, you’ve really got to keep your eyes open...
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  5 Unforgettable Moments in the History of Spaceflight and Space Exploration Humans have made great strides in spaceflight and space exploration in the relatively short amount of time since such feats were first accomplished. Here we explore five of the most important and memorable moments in spaceflight history. list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica,...
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  8 Hollywood Haunts That Are Seriously Haunted Most people think of Hollywood as a place full of glitz and glamour--and don’t get us wrong, there’s plenty of that--but it has its share of sordid secrets, as well. It turns out some of your favorite Hollywood haunts might just be…well…haunted. In a town where most of the citizenry yearn to live...
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  10 Failed Doomsday Predictions Religious leaders, scientists, and even a hen (or so it seemed) have been making predictions for the end of the world almost as long as the world has been around. They’ve predicted the destruction of the world through floods, fires, and comets—luckily for us, none of it has come to pass. list,...
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  10 Women Who Advanced Our Understanding of Life on Earth The study of life entails inquiry into many different facets of existence, from behavior and development to anatomy and physiology to taxonomy, ecology, and evolution. Hence, advances in the broad array of fields in the life sciences can be attributed to the work of countless researchers, a small...
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  Stealing Beauty: 11 Notable Art Thefts The Mona Lisa is encased in bulletproof glass, and the millions who view the painting each year do so from behind a large railing approximately six feet away. In spite of security precautions such as these, theft remains a very real concern for museums around the world. With that in mind,...
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  7 Winter Solstice Celebrations From Around the World The winter solstice, the longest night of the year, falls on December 21 or 22 in the Northern Hemisphere and June 20 or 21 in the Southern. Since ancient times, people all over the world have recognized this important astronomical occurrence and celebrated the subsequent “return” of the Sun in a...
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  9 Love Stories with Tragic Endings Many of the most compelling love stories are tragic ones. From Romeo and Juliet to Ennis and Jack, here’s a look at nine romances that have had the opposite of happy endings. How many have left you in tears? list, love, tragedy, tragic endings, stories, literature, love stories, romance, romantic,...
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  10 Fascinating Facts About the First Americans Europeans had ventured westward to the New World long before the Taino Indians discovered Christopher Columbus sailing the Caribbean Ocean blue in 1492 around Guanahani (probably San Salvador Island, though maybe another Bahamian island or the Turks and Caicos Islands, depending on which historians...
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  9 Noteworthy Bog Bodies (And What They Tell Us) Dredged out of the past and hinting at violent mysteries, bog bodies intrigue and haunt us. The how of their existence is known: bogs (cold-weather swamps) are excellent preservers of human bodies. The oxygen-free environment prevents decay, and the excessive tannins—naturally occurring chemicals...
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  9 of the World’s Deadliest Mammals Mammals are the soft, cuddly creatures of the animal kingdom. Often, mammals are the animals people are most familiar with. They are employed as working animals in the fields, as guards and companions in homes, and their visages inspire the stuffed animals on the beds and in the arms of young...
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  Cruel and Unusual Punishments: 15 Types of Torture The human mind has long been capable of dreaming up new and terrible ways to punish alleged transgressors, villains, witches, and anyone else who was unlucky enough to be in the wrong place at the wrong time. We’re all familiar with the old standbys: hanging, burning, stoning. Yawn. What if someone...
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  All the World’s a Stage: 6 Places in Shakespeare, Then and Now Like any playwright, William Shakespeare made stuff up. More often than not, though, he used real-life places as the settings for his plays. From England to Egypt, here’s what’s going on in some of those places today. list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica, list, lists, literature,...
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  Riding Freedom: 10 Milestones in U.S. Civil Rights History On May 4, 1961, a group of seven African Americans and six white people left Washington, D.C., on the first Freedom Ride in two buses bound for New Orleans. They were hoping to provoke the federal government into enforcing the 1960 Supreme Court ruling in Boynton v. Virginia, which forbade “unjust...
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  11 Banned Books Through Time There are plenty of reasons why a book might be banned. It may subvert a popular belief of a dominating culture, shock an audience with grotesque, sexual, or obscene language, or be thought to promote strife within a society. Whatever the reason, once a book is banned, a sort of aura of mystique is...
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  A History of U.S. Presidential Elections in Maps The president of the United States is elected every four years by way of the electoral college, a system devised by the creators of the Constitution that today requires a candidate to secure at least 270 electoral votes from the states to win. That means the history of presidential elections is one...
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  10 Legendary Creatures from Around the World People around the world have been dreaming up creatures as part of their legends, folklore, and religious traditions for millennia. There are hundreds—or maybe thousands!—of creatures that have been talked about either with fear or reverence and woven into memorable tales. Here are just a few of...
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  9 American Political Scandals Greed and lust—for power as well as for sex—are the essential elements of most political scandals. Other contributing factors often include mendacity, obfuscation, obsession, moral bankruptcy, naïveté, misplaced loyalty or trust, and lapse of good judgment. Frequently, a vigilant investigative...
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  Six Fascinating Festivals from Around the World Festivals are culminations of cultures. Take a look at six of the world’s most fascinating examples! list, celebrations, festivals, culture, Italy, United States, England, Scotland, Japan, South Africa Amid the historical Carnival of Ivrea, Italy, there is an unusual element that time and time...
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  Off the Hook: 10 Sharks Protected From Fishing in American Waters A bloody slab of Americana if there ever was one, Jaws is frequently cited as having been a major catalyst in inflaming public sentiment against sharks. Nonetheless, the United States is a world leader in the protection of shark fisheries, having passed the Shark Finning Prohibition Act in 2000 and...
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  Timeline of the First Opium War Disputes over trade, drug smuggling, and diplomacy led to the First Opium War. Here’s a timeline of notable events in this conflict between China and Britain. list, Opium Wars, First Opium War, China, Qing dynasty, Great Britain, opium, tea, East India Company, addiction, Treaty of Nanjing, Treaty...
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  5 Fascinating Facts about the Births and Deaths of U.S. Presidents Presidents’ Day is celebrated in the United States on the third Monday in February, honoring the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. But presidents were born—and died—in all the other months, too. Here are some strange facts and coincidences in the lives and deaths of the U.S....
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  6 Things You Should Know About Meghan, Duchess of Sussex Her marriage to Prince Harry made Meghan an international icon—and one of the most-talked-about royals. From tabloids to social media, everyone seems to have something to say. To help sort through all the chatter, here are six things we think you should know about the American actress who became a...
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  Vietnam War Timeline The Vietnam War was one of the most complex and controversial conflicts of the 20th century. Here’s a timeline of some of its key moments. list, Vietnam War, My Lai, Gulf of Tonkin, Westmoreland, Lyndon B. Johnson, Viet Cong, fall of Saigon, North Vietnam, South VietnamViet Minh troops under Gen....
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  9 Things You Might Not Know About Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler is one of the most well-known—and reviled—figures in history. As the leader of Nazi Germany, he orchestrated both World War II and the Holocaust, events that led to the deaths of at least 40,000,000 people. In the ensuing decades, he was the subject of countless books, documentaries,...
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  Pablo Escobar: 8 Interesting Facts About the King of Cocaine More than two decades after his death, Pablo Escobar remains as well known as he was during his heyday as the head of the Medellín drug cartel. His fixture in popular culture is largely thanks to countless books, movies, and songs. We’ve decided to make our contribution with a list of facts about...
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  13 Questions About How the Human Body Works Answered How do people breathe in and out? What’s the body’s biggest organ? What causes a bruise? This list answers these questions and others about how the human body works. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents)...
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  Fightin’ Fauna: 6 Animals of War Throughout recorded history, humans have excelled when it comes to finding new and inventive ways to kill each other. War really kicks that knack into overdrive, so it seems natural that humans would turn to the animal kingdom to supplement their arsenals. The Assyrians and Babylonians were among...
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  9 Historic Places Worth Exploring in Egypt From the last of the Seven Wonders of the World left standing to a presidential gaffe that inspired a huge new project, these are only a few of the incredible historical places worth exploring in Egypt. Don’t miss the opportunity to learn about these pyramids, temples, and houses. Earlier versions...
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  10 Captivating Contemporary Novels Set in the British Isles The 10 novels on this list have it all: suspense, drama, comedy, and, especially, great scenery. Set in lands beautiful, powerful, and ancient and in cities brooding and struggling for modern identity, the books presented here leave readers walking away as though they have just returned from a...
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  15 of the Best Birdsongs (According to Britannica) Humans are not the only members of the animal kingdom that can sing. Although some whales, cicadas, and tree frogs can sing (or seem to sing) too, this ability also belongs to nearly half of all the world’s birds! All members of the suborder Passeri (or oscines) of the order Passeriformes, which...
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  Women in World War I: A Photo Gallery Women have long played a vital role during wartime. In World War I (1914–18), however, their contributions grew dramatically. Millions of women entered the workforce to fill jobs that were traditionally held by men. In addition, tens of thousands of women served as nurses and doctors, and many held...
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  All 81 References in Fall Out Boy’s “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” Explained In his 1989 hit “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” American songwriter Billy Joel rattles off a list of historical references in order to argue that his generation…well, like the title says, “didn’t start the fire” of global tragedy, scandal, and screwups. (Britannica explains all 119 events here.) In...
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  5 African American Designers Who Changed Fashion Black fashion designers are responsible for some of the most iconic garments in fashion history. These five African American designers have left their mark on the world of fashion. list, Black, fashion, African American, designers, clothing, runway, arts, Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica,...
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  A Journey Through Time Since the Precambrian The Phanerozoic Eon, also known as the eon of visible life, is divided into three major eras of time largely based on fossils of different groups of life-forms found within them: the Paleozoic (542 million to 251 million years ago), Mesozoic (251 million to 65.5 million years ago), and Cenozoic...
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  21 Tombs Around the World A tomb, according to Britannica’s entry, is “a home or house for the dead.” Here are 21 tombs (or sites of many individual tombs) from around the world that show the varied ways that different cultures at different times have housed and honored their dead. Earlier versions of the descriptions of...
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  Life in the Trenches: A World War I Photo Gallery In late July and early August 1914, the great powers of Europe embarked on a course of action that would claim millions of lives, topple empires, reshape the political structure of the continent, and contribute to an even more destructive conflict a generation later. Known at the time as the Great...
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  Canada: 10 Claims to Fame O Canada! The Great White North is truly diverse, beautiful, and full of history. Explore some of the country’s natural and cultural claims to fame! list, Canada, Quebec City, polar bear, history, ice hockey, NHL, maple leaf, lake, lakes, maple syrup, oil, tar sands, Inuit, Mounties, Royal Canadian...
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  9 Architectural Landmarks in Buenos Aires Imagine a Modernist house causing a scandal in a Classical neighborhood, or a bank designed with flexibility in mind. Learn the stories behind these nine architectural landmarks in Argentina’s capital, Buenos Aires. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001...
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  19 Significant Buildings Worth Seeing in Denmark Denmark spreads over a peninsula and an archipelago of more than 400 islands. Its architectural landscape is just as varied as the land it occupies. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Mark Irving (2016)....
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  12 Questions About the History of Space Exploration Answered The universe formed roughly 13.8 billion years ago. We humans have been exploring a small portion of the universe beyond Earth for only the past seven decades. What have we accomplished so far? Lots! This list provides a just a few answers, so be sure to learn much more in Britannica’s article...
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  Princess Diana: A Life in Pictures Princess Diana lived a short but remarkable life. Once known as “Shy Di,” she became one of the world’s biggest celebrities, noted for both her glamor and her humanitarian work, and she forever changed the British monarchy. Decades after her death in 1997, Princess Diana’s legacy endures. list,...
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  7 Significant Stadiums Stadiums have their roots in ancient Greece, where they were a place for footraces. Modern stadiums are home to a much wider variety of sports and purposes. Here are seven significant ones. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these sports structures first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You...
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  9 Mind-Altering Plants In their quest for survival, plants have evolved to produce an amazing variety of chemical compounds known as secondary metabolites. These chemicals often serve to deter herbivores, protect against pathogens and neighbors, or mitigate the effects of radiation, among numerous other uses....
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  11 Famous Movie Monsters Ghost, ghouls, and things that go bump in the night. People young and old love a good scare, and the horror genre has been a part of moviemaking since its earliest days. Explore this gallery of ghastly classic movie monsters. list, movies, movie monsters, famous movie monsters, famous movies, film,...
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  8 Famous Animals They don’t do interviews or write self-promoting memoirs—though some definitely know how to strike a pose. Yet animals have been capturing the public’s imagination for centuries. Some have impressed with their loyalty and devotion, and others have garnered attention for saving lives. A few have...
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  17 Questions About Health and Wellness Answered Why do we get sick, and what do our bodies do to prevent sickness? Learn more about the science behind viruses, allergies, vaccines, exercise, and many other influences on people’s health. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book...
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  12 Influencers Throughout History Though we might think of today’s influencers as people with millions of followers on Instagram or TikTok, both of which are relatively recent inventions, the role of an influencer is not so specific to the 21st century. In fact, centuries before social media even existed, trendsetters inspired...
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  Charles III: A Life in Pictures Charles Philip Arthur George was born to be king, and in many ways he has helped redefine the British monarchy. The longest-serving heir apparent in the country’s history, Charles often broke with royal tradition, and he was the first royal to grow up in the glare of an increasingly invasive media....
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  6 Interesting Facts About Barbie She is arguably the world’s most popular doll. In fact, more than 100 are sold every minute. But how much do you know about Barbara Millicent Roberts? (And yes, that’s Barbie’s full name.) Read on for some fascinating facts about the iconic toy. list, Barbie, Mattel, Ken, Ruth Handler, Jack Ryan,...
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  7 Surprising Uses for Mummies The ancient Egyptians are famous for their mummification process and their preservation of the dead. Scientists have studied mummies to learn more about the mummification process and also the condition of the bodies. Today you can visit certain museums to view mummies for pleasure. It may or may...
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  9 Infamous Assassins and the World Leaders They Dispatched The murder of a president, prime minister, king, or other world leader can resonate throughout a country. Sometimes the assassination of a leader is so shocking and profound that it triggers what psychologists call flashbulb memory in a country’s citizens. Many will remember forever where they were...
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  5 Fascinating British Coronation Objects The coronation of the British monarch is one of the oldest and most-storied of ceremonies. It follows an outline that has been in place for more than a millennium. An important part of the service is the coronation regalia, which form the core of the famed—and controversial—British crown jewels....
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  Elizabeth II: A Life in Pictures Born Elizabeth Alexandra Mary, she was in many ways a woman of her time: a wife and mother with abiding affections for dogs, horses, and long walks in the country. Except that she was born a princess and fate made her a queen. Few people of any era—male or female—have led more storied or complex...
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  Major Mass Extinctions During the billions of years of its history, life on Earth has weathered some bumps in the road. As species evolved and diversified, several major mass extinction events changed the course of life. In such events, a significant number of living species died off over a broad geographic area during a...
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  8 Unusual Punishments Inflicted on Women Throughout History Throughout history, women have faced punishment that has ranged from mild to extreme. History maintained more rigid rules than we might recognize today for women’s behavior and roles, and a step out of line might call for a cruel punishment to remind women of their positions in society. Women...
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  6 of the World’s Deadliest Natural Disasters These six natural disasters destroyed cities and wiped out communities around the world. By hurricane, typhoon, flood, or earthquake, these events have collectively taken millions of human lives. list, natural disasters, hurricane, flood, typhoon, earthquake, worst, deadliest, Britannica,...
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  7 People Who Shaped LGBTQIA+ World History These seven figures in LGBTQIA+ history broke barriers around the world. Their contributions to their respective fields have dismantled systems of oppression, advocated for LGBTQIA+ human rights, and allowed LGBTQIA+ people to express themselves more freely. list, Britannica, Encyclopaedia...
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  26 Decade-Defining Events in U.S. History Dividing history into decades is an arbitrary but sometimes very useful way of trying to understand the arcs and significance of events. Trying to identify any single event as crucial to the understanding of a given decade may be even more arbitrary. It is certainly subjective. Nevertheless, that...
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  Prince Philip: A Life in Pictures Philip, duke of Edinburgh, was the prince consort and husband to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. To many, Philip became familiar as the man who walked a few steps behind the queen. He accompanied his perhaps more famous son Charles, who became king in 2022, and other members of the royal...
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  5 Incredible Native American Artists These five artists have combined their Indigenous roots with revolutionary artistic techniques to preserve their cultures in the face of adversity. Through their various media, they represent themselves, their identity, their families, and their tribes. list, Native American, art, pottery,...
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  5 Important Places in Global LGBTQIA+ History These five places around the world were integral in the development of the gay and transgender liberation movements that we know today as LGBTQIA+ history. list, Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, LGBTQIA+, places, LGBTQIA+ history, pride Perhaps the most iconic site of...
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  Before the E-Reader: 7 Ways Our Ancestors Took Their Reading on the Go The iPhone was released in 2007. E-books reached the mainstream in the late 1990s. Printed books have been around since the 1450s. But how did writing move around before then? After all, a book—electronic or not—is simply a mechanism for making written information portable. And our ancestors were...
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  10 Common Questions Kids Have About School, Life, and Being a Student Going to school is an important part of every child’s life, valuable for learning useful skills such as math and reading and how to live and thrive in society and the wider world. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids...
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  7 Bizarre Spa Treatments Mankind’s relentless pursuit of physical beauty is nothing new (the use of cosmetics dates back to ancient Egypt and Rome) but the methods we use to achieve that “perfect look” have certainly evolved. Gone are the days of bathing with a bar of soap, dabbing on natural perfume, and applying subtle...
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  13 Iconic Buildings to Visit in New York City When you visit New York City, you’re following the footsteps of some of the world’s greatest architects. Make sure you don’t miss these prime examples of their work that, together, make the great city what it is today. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001...
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  11 Lesser-Known, Mostly Contemporary Paintings You Should Hunt Down the Next Time You’re in London London offers world-class art everywhere you look. The city has superb galleries and institutions that are home to world-class artworks. Sometimes, though, these collections can take a bit of extra work to find. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001...
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  7 Iconic Buildings in Chicago In 1779 Jean-Baptist-Point Du Sable, a trader, founded the settlement that would become Chicago. It was incorporated as a town in 1833 and then again as a city in 1837. A third of it burned down in 1871, but Chicago rebuilt itself ferociously and has been building, and tearing down, ever since. The...
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  The 10 Greatest Basketball Players of All Time It’s time for Britannica—OK, one editor at Britannica—to jump into the perpetually unresolved “greatest ever in [insert sport here]” fray. We’re not technically a sports website, but this editor (hi!) has been obsessively watching sports for nearly three decades and arguing about them with friends...
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  Exploring 10 Types of Basketball Movies Training montages, victories snatched from the jaws of defeat, plucky underdogs, wizened but wise coaches, Big Races, Big Fights, and Big Games…lots and lots of Big Games: This is the stuff of sports movies, or at least the clichés. But there is often more to movies about sports than first meets...
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  9 of the World’s Deadliest Snakes Few animals strike as much fear into people as venomous snakes. Although the chances of running into a venomous snake, much less being bitten and dying from the toxin injected into one’s body, are miniscule compared to dying from cancer, heart disease, or an automobile accident, this seemingly...
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  The Top COVID-19 Vaccine Myths Spreading Online This special report has been provided to Britannica by NewsGuard, which offers the service HealthGuard to fight online health care misinformation. It was written by John Gregory and originally published at newsguardtech.com. Chine Labbe, Kendrick McDonald, Anicka Slachta, Sophia Tewa, Edward...
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  9 Questions About World War II Answered World War II was the world’s largest and most destructive war. It involved nearly every region of the world, and it resulted in the deaths of as many as 50,000,000 people. The questions and answers in this list are taken from the Top Questions sections of the articles on World War II, Adolf Hitler,...
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  2 Vermeers, 1 Krasner, and 11 Other Paintings That Washington, D.C., Has To Offer Washington, D.C., is home to many art institutions that offer great collections of art. This list highlights just 14 of the paintings found in collections housed there. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by...
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  9 of the World’s Deadliest Spiders More than 43,000 different species of spiders are found in the world. Of these, only a small number are said to be dangerous, and less than 30 (less than one-tenth of one percent) have been responsible for human deaths. Why are so few spiders harmful to humans? Much of the reason may result from...
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  These 5 Frescos by Giotto Are Required Viewing on Your Next Trip to Italy Giotto is, according to art historian Peter J. Murray, “the most important Italian painter of the 14th century.” Not a great deal is known with certainty about his life, but his surviving works exude a striking intensity even today. Discover the stories behind five of the artist’s most fascinating...
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  31 Paintings to See in the Tate Collection The Tate collection includes British art from the 16th century to today as well as modern and contemporary art from around the world. It is held by four galleries: Tate Britain and Tate Modern, both in London; Tate Liverpool; and Tate St. Ives. To see all 31 of these paintings will require a trip...
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  10 Democrats Who Made History As the oldest political party in the United States—and one of the oldest political parties in the world—the Democratic Party has a long history of making history. Its origins trace to 1792, and since then the party has been home to a number of politicians who redefined the political landscape. Read...
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  11 Egyptian Gods and Goddesses Egypt had one of the largest and most complex pantheons of gods of any civilization in the ancient world. Over the course of Egyptian history hundreds of gods and goddesses were worshipped. The characteristics of individual gods could be hard to pin down. Most had a principle association (for...
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  San Francisco: 9 Claims to Fame The history of San Francisco feels like the history of the American West in a nutshell. From its beginnings as a rough and tumble Gold Rush settlement, to its adolescence as a counterculture capital, to its current incarnation as a high-tech metropolis, San Francisco has managed to pack a lot of...
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  7 of the World’s Most Dangerous Festivals If you’re a thrill seeker, here are seven festivals and celebrations from around the world that will get your blood pumping. list, celebration, festivals, holidays Deck the halls, or deck each other? You may associate Christmas with Santa Claus or peace on Earth and goodwill toward men, but in some...
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  8 of History’s Most Famous Charlatans, Con Artists, and Tricksters From alchemists to false princesses, sorcerers to political imposters, tricksters have played an eminent role in history. The outlandish schemes of these wily characters have never failed to attract public attention. Here are eight charlatans, con artists, and other tricksters who left legacies of...
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  Boston: 10 Claims to Fame Good ol’ Boston. Greater Boston was the site of the American Revolution, is home to Harvard and MIT, and was the birthplace of Dunkin Donuts and public figures such as JFK. History runs through this city’s veins, although it can’t all be found in your textbook. Explore some of Boston’s bizarre and...
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  28 Places to See on Your California Road Trip California has been a hotbed of architectural changes and innovation. From the wacky to the sublime, this list shows the wide range of architectural experimentation and aesthetics in the Golden State. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must...
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  These 5 Goya Paintings Range from Horrifying to Regal Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes—better known simply as Goya—was born in Spain in 1746. His most memorable art vividly expresses the tumult that was rumbling through Europe during his lifetime, particularly in the early 19th century. Read on to discover the stories behind five of Goya’s most...
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  6 Questions About the Sun Answered Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010). list, Sun, astronomy The Sun is a star, made up of hot gases that contain elements including hydrogen, helium, calcium, sodium, magnesium,...
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  7 Questions About Mammals Answered Mammals can do amazing things! This list will answer your questions about flying ones, venomous ones, really fast ones, and smelly ones. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010)....
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  15 Questions About Units of Measurement Answered Units of measurement help us through our daily lives by standardizing how we discuss things such as someone’s height, the size of our shoes, the weight of that handful of fruit in the supermarket, and the temperature outside. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the...
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  22 Questions About Time and Timekeeping Answered Humans, arguably, have been measuring time ever since they began tracking the rising and setting of the Sun. That means horology—the study of time’s measurement—has a very long history. This list is a brief horological primer. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the...
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  16 Questions About Earth’s Atmsophere and Weather Answered The sky includes Earth’s atmosphere and is the location of the planet’s weather, which means there’s a lot happening there. A clear sky usually means a warm and sunny day while a dark, cloudy, and windy day brings warning of an incoming thunderstorm. This list will help you understand a few more...
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  16 Questions About Pets Answered Dogs and cats and snakes, oh my! What are some of the most popular pets around the world, and why are they the way they are? This list will provide you with answers. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents)...
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  18 Questions About Farming Answered Food production around the world relies heavily on agriculture. Farmers raise vegetables, livestock, and other products. How has farming evolved over time, and what are the different ways to farm? Why do farm animals do what they do? And what does wind have to do with farms? This list will answer...
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  8 of Nellie Bly’s Most Sensational Stories Nellie Bly, the renowned investigative journalist, was a force to be reckoned with. Born Elizabeth Cochran in 1864, she adopted the pen name Nellie Bly and went to extraordinary lengths to write impactful stories exposing poverty, corruption, and injustice. Here are 8 of the most sensational...
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  8 Interesting Facts About Rats Those who suffer from musophobia might want to stop reading. This list is about rats! We’ve come up with eight facts that you might not know—or want to know—about the rodent everyone loves to hate. list, rat, rodent, Black Death, gerbil, reproduction, Chicago, Bosavi woolly rat, house rat, Taxi!...
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  5 Incredible Women in STEM You Need to Know We owe a number of humanity’s great scientific, mathematical, and technological developments to women—even if they often aren’t given the credit they’ve earned. Here are just five of those women. list, women in STEM, science, technology, engineering, math, Gladys West, Tu Youyou, Mary Golda Ross,...
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  9 Questions About the American Civil War Answered The American Civil War was fought from 1861 to 1865 between the United States and 11 Southern states that seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The questions and answers in this list are taken from the Top Questions sections of the articles on the American Civil War,...
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  8 Questions About World War I Answered World War I was a war that was virtually unprecedented in the slaughter, carnage, and destruction it caused. Some 8,500,000 soldiers died as a result of wounds or disease, and as many as 13,000,000 civilians also died. It concluded with the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed in 1919. The...
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  9 Questions About the Vietnam War Answered The Vietnam War was a protracted conflict that pitted the communist government of North Vietnam and its allies in South Vietnam, known as the Viet Cong, against the government of South Vietnam and its principal ally, the United States. It lasted from 1954 to 1975. The questions and answers in this...
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  Timeline of the American Civil Rights Movement The civil rights movement came to national prominence in the United States during the mid-1950s and continued to challenge racial segregation and discrimination through the 1960s. Many organizations, notably the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), headed by Martin Luther King, Jr., the...
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  12 Questions About Skin Answered Uncontrollable acne? Brittle nails? Thin and dry hair? Go see a dermatologist! Dermatology is the study of skin and its disorders. This branch of medicine also studies hair and nails, because skin, hair, and nails are made of the same protein: keratin. Earlier versions of these questions and...
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  6 Questions About the History of Money and Banking Answered Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in The Handy Personal Finance Answer Book by Paul A. Tucci (2012). list, finance, history, banks, money, spending, saving, coins The English word money first appeared in the 14th century. It was derived from the Latin word moneta, a...
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  Add These 18 Paintings as Must-Sees During Your Next Trip to Australia The Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia created the earliest visual art in what is today Australia tens of thousands of years ago. The arrival of Europeans in Australia added Western practices to the country’s cultural heritage. This list focuses almost entirely on...
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  6 Questions About DNA Answered Deoxyribonucleic acid, better known as DNA, is crucial to life on Earth. The questions and answers in this list are taken from the Top Questions sections of the articles on DNA, recombinant DNA, and chloroplast, where you can find more questions answered. list, DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid,...
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  8 Questions About Democracy Answered The origins of the word democracy reveal its meaning: it comes from the Greek word dēmokratia, which was derived from dēmos (“people”) and kratos (“rule”). In other words: rule by the people. The questions and answers in this list are taken from the Top Questions sections of the articles on...
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  5 Questions About Dinosaurs Answered The name dinosaur is derived from the Greek words deinos (“terrible” or “fearfully great”) and sauros (“reptile” or “lizard”). It refers to a group of reptiles that thrived on Earth for nearly 180 million years; most went extinct about 66 million years ago. The questions and answers in this list...
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  5 Questions About Reconstruction Answered Reconstruction was the period in U.S. history following the Civil War, from 1865 to 1877, when the country attempted to redress slavery and its legacy and to bring 11 states back into the Union. The questions and answers in this list are taken from the Top Questions sections of the articles on...
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  20 Paintings You Have to Visit at the Museo del Prado in Madrid The origins of the Museo del Prado, or Prado Museum, can be traced back to 1785, when the building in Madrid that the Prado now occupies was commissioned by King Charles III. The museum contains the most complete collections in the world of the works of El Greco, Velázquez, and Francisco de Goya,...
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  Human Ancestors Modern human beings—that is, the species Homo sapiens—emerged relatively recently, only about 315,000 to 150,000 years ago. However, the human lineage has survived a long and arduous journey. Over millions of years, our genetic path followed numerous twists and turns. Here’s a glimpse at...
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  10 Musical Acts That Scored 10 #1 Hits Landing a number-one hit on Billboard magazine’s Hot 100—the premiere pop singles chart in the United States—is by itself a remarkable achievement. A handful of recording artists, however, have managed the feat at least 10 times since the 1950s, when the chart originated. As you might expect, the...
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  21 Notable Paintings in the Musée d’Orsay The Musée d’Orsay is located in a former railway station and hotel, the Gare d’Orsay, in Paris. Its collection is focused primarily on French art from the second half of the 19th century and early years of the 20th. It is among Paris’s most popular museums, and these 21 paintings are just a...
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  Brazil: 10 Claims to Fame When television viewers all over planet Earth turned their attention to Brazil in 2014 to watch the competition for the football (soccer) World Cup, they were repeatedly greeted with swirling helicopter shots from above, behind, and around the colossal statue of Christ the Redeemer looking down...
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  16 Paintings You Can See (in Person) Only in Sweden Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018). Writers’ names appear in parentheses. list, travel, tourism, destinations, Sweden, Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malmö Peder Severin Krøyer, born in...
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  8 of the Largest Empires in History Some empires didn’t just make history—they dominated it. Until they didn’t. Here are eight of the largest empires the world has ever seen. list, empires, empire, history, imperial, biggest, largest Also known as the Achaemenian Empire, the kingdom created under Cyrus the Great stretched from Iran...
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  5 Buildings You Have to See in Chile Have you heard of a half house? Been poked by a church made of cacti? Taken a stroll through a university with a wide-open addition? If any of these architectural features surprise you, you need to take a closer look at this list of the five buildings you need to see in Chile. Earlier versions of...
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  The Fastest Animals on Earth In the animal kingdom, speed can mean the difference between life and death. Predators use their speed to overtake and overpower their prey, while animals with few other defenses rely on speed to avoid becoming dinner. Here are some of the fastest animals in the world. list, animals, fastest...
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  5 Art Restorations Gone Wrong People attempted to restore these five artworks to their original glory. Unfortunately, they rendered the works unrecognizable. list, art, art restoration, restorations, botched restorations, Ecce Homo, Leonardo da Vinci, Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopaedia Britannica Cecilia Giménez...
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  10 Unusual Sports Soccer, basketball, baseball, and the like are popular all around the world. Yawn. Looking for something a bit different? This list explains 10 unusual sports that you may or may not have heard of. These unusual sports are often violent, painful, or both. Some of them are takes on other sports,...
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  These 6 Paintings Shine a Light on Berlin’s Past Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018). Writers’ names appear in parentheses. list, destinations, travel, tourism, George Grosz, Gerard Terborch, Paul Klee, August Macke, Karl Friedrich...
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  4 Notable Paintings in Norway and 1 in Sweden Depicting Norway Norway became independent in 1905, though it has been home to humans since perhaps 10,000 BCE. That long history means a vast cultural heritage, of which these five paintings form a tiny part. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See...
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  7 Women Warriors When courage is in short supply, we look outside ourselves to find it. Sometimes a good book or film will rouse it, or a quiet place, or the example of another person. Hushpuppy, the six-year-old heroine of the movie Beasts of the Southern Wild, is one such inspiration. When her father, to help her...
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  5 Interesting Paintings at the National Gallery of Australia The National Gallery of Australia in Canberra opened in 1982, and its wide-ranging collection comprises tens of thousands of works, including the world’s most significant collection of art by Aboriginal peoples and Torres Strait Islander peoples. This list focuses on five paintings, mostly...
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  7 Accomplished Paintings in Moscow Moscow’s documented history reaches back to the 12th century, though there is evidence of prehistoric habitation of the site. These seven paintings are just a small sampling of the city’s equally rich and varied cultural heritage. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first...
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  5 Paintings You Need to See in Japan Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018). Writers’ names appear in parentheses. list, travel, tourism, sightseeing, Japan, museums, art, Nezu Museum, Tokyo National Museum, Yakushi-ji...
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  6 Paintings Worth Seeing in Canada The Canadian War Museum, the National Gallery of Canada, and the Art Gallery of Ontario are the unique venues that offer access to these six paintings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing...
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  6 Significant Paintings in Brazil The rich history of Brazil’s visual arts is echoed by the country’s museums, which hold notable collections of Brazilian and international art. Here are just six paintings in those collections. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See...
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  Everyday Stuff Developed by NASA Over the decades the American space program has put 12 men on the moon, landed rovers on Mars, and sent numerous probes into the outer reaches of our solar system. The science behind these and other projects has provided countless products and innovations that benefit the world—including some that...
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  5 Must-See Buildings in Dublin What is today the area occupied by Dublin was first noted in writings by Ptolemy that date to about 140 CE. The earliest proven settlement there was a Norse one in the 9th century. This list provides a snapshot of Ireland’s capital city in more recent years. Earlier versions of the descriptions of...
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  5 More Paintings to See at the National Galleries of Scotland in Edinburgh You haven’t had enough of notable paintings in the collections of the National Galleries of Scotland, even after reading about 10 of them in a different list? You’re in luck! The National Galleries are the Scottish National Gallery, Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, and Scottish National...
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  15 Paintings to See at the Victoria and Albert Museum The Victoria and Albert Museum in London has its origins in the Great Exhibition of 1851. The works of decorative arts displayed there moved to the Museum of Manufacturers and then to the South Kensington Museum, which, in 1899, was renamed the Victoria and Albert Museum. Today the V&A’s collection...
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  19 Places That Exemplify Cool Swiss Style From the Yellow House to the Kirchner Museum, these buildings offer a vision of what Swiss architectural style means. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Mark Irving (2016). Writers’ names appear in...
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  The Philadelphia Museum of Art Is Home to These 12 Notable Paintings The Philadelphia Museum of Art was founded in 1876 as the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art; it adopted its current name in 1938. Today its collection consists of more than 240,000 artworks. This list focuses on just 12 of its paintings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these...
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  America’s 5 Most Notorious Cold Cases (Including One You May Have Thought Was Already Solved) Cryptic codes. Threatening notes. Romantic rendezvous gone wrong. Not every murder gets solved. For all the amateur sleuths out there, we’ve collected the United States’ five most notorious cold cases: list, true crime, cold case, murder, United States, Zodiac killer, cipher, California, Arthur...
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  23 Must-See Buildings for Your First Trip to India The Taj Mahal may be India’s most iconic monument, but it’s just one of many of the country’s significant buildings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Mark Irving (2016). Writers’ names appear in...
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  Explore the Beauty of Oil Paintings with These 5 Works by Rembrandt According to Ernst van de Wetering, in his biography of Rembrandt van Rijn in Encyclopaedia Britannica, Rembrandt was “an artist who favoured an uncompromising realism that would lead some critics to claim that he preferred ugliness to beauty.” What was never ugly, however, was Rembrandt’s mastery...
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  Be Transported by These 5 Claude Monet Paintings Claude Monet was the creator and leader of the Impressionist style. These five paintings are just a sampling of his accomplishments. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018). Writers’...
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  9 Must-See Paintings in Detroit The Detroit Institute of Arts houses one of Detroit’s most vibrant and extensive collections of art. Here are just nine of the paintings worth seeing there. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen...
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  5 J.M.W. Turner Paintings with Fascinating Stories Behind Them A ship consumed by a wave. A government office burning. The paintings of J.M.W. Turner are some of the most dramatic and intense of their time, and there is always more to them than meets the eye. Read on to discover the stories behind the artist’s most fascinating masterpieces. Earlier versions of...
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  20 Buildings Not to Miss in Australia From the Rose Seidler House and Mooloomba House to the Sydney Opera House, these 20 buildings are examples of some of Australia’s most architecturally and historically important structures. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before...
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  12 Incredible Buildings in South Africa Portuguese ships sailed past the Cape of Good Hope and what would become South Africa for the first time in 1488, but European settlements were not established until the 17th century. The British and Dutch, who were responsible for these settlements, arrived in a place that had been inhabited since...
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  10 Noteworthy Paintings at the Ashmolean Museum The Ashmolean Museum opened in 1683 at the University of Oxford. Its collection is vastly wide-ranging. This list highlights just 10 of its notable paintings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen...
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  6 Famous Paintings to See at the Buffalo AKG Art Museum The Buffalo AKG Art Museum, which was founded in 1862 as the Buffalo Fine Arts Academy and was later called the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, is known for its collection of modern and contemporary art. Here are six notable paintings in its collection. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these...
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  Portugal Is Home to These 17 Inspiring Buildings Legend holds that Lisbon, Portugal’s capital, was founded by the ancient Greek hero Odysseus. Although these 17 buildings might not be quite as fantastical as that claim, they will delight you just the same. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings...
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  6 Small Kingdoms of the World The 20th century saw the fall of many monarchies and their replacement by republican forms of government around the world. There are still a significant number of countries and smaller political units that retain monarchies, however. These six countries are some of the smallest kingdoms of the...
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  19 Historic Buildings to Visit in Rome The term historic may be understated for a city that can trace its origins, as a continuous settlement, to the first millennium BCE. Nearly everything about Rome might be considered historic. This list merely skims the surface of the buildings worth seeing in Italy’s national capital. Earlier...
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  11 Buildings That Reveal Belgium’s History Belgium declared its independence in 1830, though its history stretches back much further. These 11 unique buildings provide snapshots of the country’s trajectory through time. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die,...
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  5 Paintings by Vincent van Gogh That Are Even Better in Person From sunflowers to self-portraits, Vincent van Gogh expressed his view of the world. His many self-portraits show his various physical and emotional states, as reflected in Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear. More than two days in bed prompted him to paint his experience in Bedroom in Arles. As he...
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  13 Buildings You Should Visit When You’re in Tokyo Tokyo was once known as Edo, which began as a fishing village many centuries ago. Edo became Tokyo (”Eastern Capital”) in the 19th century, when it became Japan’s capital. This list highlights just a few of the many significant buildings in Tokyo. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these...
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  6 Ingenious Escapes Individuals often find themselves in circumstances that…well, they’d rather not be in. Here are six ingenious escapes throughout history. list, escapes, breakouts, jailbreak, prison break, Alcatraz, Tower of London, Dalai Lama, El Chapo, Berlin Wall For much of England’s history, the Tower of...
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  See the Variety of Russian Architecture in These 18 Buildings Russia is the world’s largest country by area, with great variety in its land and people. Its architectural heritage is equally varied, as these 18 buildings demonstrate. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by...
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  11 Must-See Buildings in Mexico City Mexico City was founded in 1521, on the ruins of Tenochtitlán. It is a densely populated city surrounded on three sides by mountains, and at its heart is a gargantuan public square with a long history. These 11 buildings capture the dynamic spirit of Mexico City’s past and present. Earlier versions...
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  9 Historic Buildings in Florence Florence was founded in the 1st century BCE as a Roman military colony. During its long history it has served many other roles, including a brief stint as the national capital of Italy in the 1860s. But the city remains best known as the birthplace of the Renaissance, and most of these nine...
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  5 Landmark Buildings in Copenhagen Copenhagen’s history reaches back to at least the 10th century, when a village is known to have existed where Denmark’s capital does today. Copenhagen’s architectural heritage is extensive and spans centuries; these five buildings are, relatively speaking, more recent and not always at the top of...
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  5 Stunning Feats of Architecture in Beijing Palaces turned into parks, a great hall built to celebrate the founding of the People’s Republic of China, and a subtle architectural argument against censorship—all places that you can’t miss in Beijing. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You...
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  11 Iconic Buildings in Brazil Brazil is a very large country: it fills half of South America and is larger, in area, than the continental United States. That means it has a rich and vast architectural heritage. Here are just 11 of its most iconic buildings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared...
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  12 Revolutionary Buildings to Visit in Vienna Vienna has been the capital of the Holy Roman Empire and the empire known as Austria-Hungary. After World War II, it was occupied by multiple countries’ forces. History courses through its streets, as evidenced by these 12 buildings, but revolution does too. Each of these buildings performs its own...
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  7 Buildings You Ought to Visit in Madrid Madrid officially became the capital of Spain during the reign of King Philip III, which ran from 1598 to 1621. This long history as Spain’s first city is reflected in these seven buildings, though with a bias toward buildings of the 21st century. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these...
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  7 Iconic Buildings in Havana The Old Havana district of Cuba’s capital was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1982, but there’s much else to see in Havana. Here are just seven of the city’s iconic buildings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You...
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  13 Buildings That Tell Berlin’s Story The history of Berlin is a long one, filled with triumphs and tragedies. These 13 buildings span centuries and capture, in microcosm, the city’s unique progression through time and arrival in the present. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You...
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  10 Infographics that Explain the Normandy Invasion During World War II The Normandy Invasion was launched on June 6, 1944, with the landing of U.S., British, and Canadian forces on five beaches on the northern coast of France. Even though D-Day is a generic military term for any day on which an operation is to occur, the Normandy Invasion was such an important and...
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  6 Breathtaking Buildings in Los Angeles When you’re in Los Angeles, you need to visit more than just the beach. Don’t miss these six breathtaking buildings, from the Disney Concert Hall to Case Study House No. 22. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited...
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  6 Buildings You’ll Want to Visit in the Netherlands In the Netherlands, architecture is art. In this list, you’ll find buildings inspired by famous paintings and buildings that resemble paintings themselves. Once you learn about Café de Unie, the Berlage, and more, you won’t be able to help but plan your next visit to Rotterdam. Earlier versions of...
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  5 Historic Buildings in Liverpool Liverpool’s history began in 1207, when England’s king chartered a town there. None of these five structures are quite that historic, but all of them capture a vivid sense of the times in which they were built. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings...
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  7 Alphabet Soup Agencies that Stuck Around It’s clear that Franklin Delano Roosevelt wasn’t messing around when he came into the U.S. presidency during the Great Depression. His administration created the New Deal program, in which a large number of agencies—known colloquially as “alphabet soup” because of their three- or four-lettered...
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  Timeline of the Second Opium War (Arrow War) Britain and France fought the Second Opium War against China to gain greater commercial access to China. This timeline lists the key events during this conflict. list, Second Opium War, Arrow War, Great Britain, China, France, Russia, United States, opium, Tianjin, Tientsin, Canton, Guangzhou,...
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  Queen Mab’s Stable: 7 of the Smallest Animals Size isn’t everything. These Lilliputian creatures, the smallest in their respective taxonomic groups, show that diminution has its advantages. list, smallest animals, small, size, evolution, smallest frog, smallest snake, smallest mammal, smallest fish, smallest cetacean, animals, cute, teeny,...
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  9 of the World’s Deepest Lakes Deep lakes hold a special place in the human imagination. The motif of a bottomless lake is widespread in world mythology; in such bodies of water, one generally imagines finding monsters, lost cities, treasures, mermaids, realms of the dead, and so on. Although today we can study bodies of water...
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  Trivia with a Capital “Tea”: 5 Things You Didn’t Know About Tea Tea is a beloved drink all over the world. It is one of the most consumed beverages, second only to water. You might drink it hot or cold, with lemon or with sugar, but how much do you actually know about tea? The following are five tea-riffic pieces of trivia to wow your friends with over a nice...
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  5 of the World’s Most Devastating Financial Crises Many of us still remember the collapse of the U.S. housing market in 2006 and the ensuing financial crisis that wreaked havoc on the U.S. and around the world. Financial crises are, unfortunately, quite common in history and often cause economic tsunamis in affected economies. Below you will find a...
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  7 (or 8) Summits: The World’s Highest Mountains by Continent Mountaineers can all agree that climbing the Seven Summits, the highest peaks of each of the world’s continents, is among the supreme accomplishments of their sport; it is harder to get them to agree on exactly which peaks make up the Seven Summits. The problem is one of geographical classification...
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  Behind the Scenes: 7 Historical Figures in Beatles Lyrics While much of the mega-popular catalog of Beatles ballads references a generic “she” or “him” or “girl” or “baby,” the Fab Four did sometimes make mention of specific people. Some of them—like a certain infamous Chairman and a fellow music legend—you may have heard of. Others you might not even...
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  Animals That Were Named Totally Wrong The colloquial names given to many animals can be confusing because they suggest something that is not the case. The flying fox, for example, isn’t a fox at all. It’s actually a large fruit-eating bat found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. Here are some other animal misnomers....
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  10 Important Dates in Pluto History Always an oddity as a planet, Pluto was demoted to dwarf planet in 2006. That fateful day is, however, just one of many notable dates during its brief run as the solar system’s smallest planet. list, astronomy, space exploration, solar system, PlutoIn 1902 astronomer Percival Lowell noted that the...
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  6 Animal Species that Mate for Life Lifelong monogamous relationships are common among humans but far less so within the broader animal kingdom. Animals that do bond for life include: list, animals, mating, mate for life, monogamy, partners, partnership The European version of these dam-building rodents remains faithful once a...
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  The World’s 5 Most Commonly Used Writing Systems Written language stands as one of humanity’s greatest achievements. Whereas speech is fleeting, written communication provides a permanence and has ultimately influenced everything from commerce to government to religion. The following are the five most commonly used writing systems around the...
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  5 Prominent Paintings in Poland The National Museum in Warsaw, which has more than 800,000 artworks in its collection, is just one of Poland’s many important museums. It’s also one of the places where these five paintings can be found. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You...
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  7 Masterpieces of Painting in Vatican City Vatican City is an independent nation-state—the smallest in the world—with a staggering collection of artworks. Here are just seven paintings you shouldn’t miss. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen...
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  Spies Like Us: 10 Famous Names in the Espionage Game The cloak-and-dagger world of James Bond (inspired by the “ungentlemanly warfare” practiced by author Ian Fleming during World War II) is full of car chases, gun battles, and doomsday plots. In the real world of intelligence gathering, spies can often do more damage with a portable hard drive than...
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  5 Paintings in Manchester That Aren’t Mancunian By the middle of the 19th century, Manchester had become one of England’s most important centers of manufacturing. It had also developed a notable cultural and intellectual life that it has retained to this day. This list highlights five paintings worth seeing in Manchester (though none of the...
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  The Largest Islands in the World Quite a few islands around the world are very large, and many of them are countries. Australia is technically an island because it is unconnected to any other body of land, but it is more commonly considered a continental landmass. Of the seven continents, Australia is the smallest, at 2,969,976...
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  Longhair Cat Breeds Longhair cats are defined by their luxurious coats. Here’s a sampling of 11 longhair breeds. list, cats, pets, breeds, longhairBalinese cats have long svelte bodies and sapphire-blue eyes. They are a mutation of the Siamese breed. The Birman is known as the “Sacred Cat of Burma.” It is...
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  5 Remarkably Close U.S. Presidential Elections One of the most common reasons people give for not voting in elections is that they feel their lone vote doesn’t matter. History, however, shows otherwise—especially when it comes to presidential elections, as illustrated by these five extremely close races. list, elections, presidential elections,...
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  7 Unique Burial Rituals Across the World The news of a loved one’s death hits every person differently. The aftermath of that news, then, takes unique forms the world over as cultures celebrate the life and honor the death of individuals in ways often singular to their culture. Let’s look at seven distinct burial rituals. list, burial...
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  11 Amazing Paintings in the Netherlands “No other country in the world has such a high density of art institutions,” says DutchCulture.nl about the Netherlands. “Almost every town or city has a museum of contemporary art. And if there isn’t a museum, there is certain to be a centre for contemporary art, a festival or some other event.”...
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  22 Paintings to See in Hamburg Hamburg is Germany’s largest port, and it is one of that country’s leading commercial centers. It also boasts a vibrant group of museums headlined by the Hamburger Kunsthalle, where these 22 paintings can be found. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001...
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  From Gainsborough to Tansey: 7 Paintings in California Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018). Writers’ names appear in parentheses. list, tourism, destinations, travel, Thomas Lawrence, Thomas Gainsborough, James Ensor, Francisco de...
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  Don’t Know Where to Visit in Poland? Check Out These 10 Fascinating Destinations Poland is a place of many modern and historical monuments of architectural and historical importance. Some of them are UNESCO World Heritage sites, including Malbork Castle. Learn why you should visit these 10 buildings in this list. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first...
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  6 Notable Paintings at the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne The National Gallery of Victoria, which was founded in 1861, houses its collection in two spaces in Melbourne: NGV Australia and NGV International, the nams of which signal the works to be found there. The museum holds more than 70,000 artworks and provides a sweeping view of the history of art...
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  5 Revealing Paintings by Caravaggio The art critic Andrew Graham-Dixon writes of Caravaggio that “[h]e was a violent man, but he lived in violent times, and he was as much sinned against as sinning.” That may be an excuse for a man who was a murderer as well as a hugely influential artist of the late 16th and early 17th centuries,...
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  5 Paintings You Can’t Miss in Birmingham If you haven’t seen these five paintings at the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery in England’s second largest city—what are you waiting for? Learn about the art and history that lives in this museum in this list, then book your ticket to see them in real life. Earlier versions of the descriptions...
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  6 Paintings Worth a Visit in Munich Hoping to see more than just Oktoberfest beer steins on your next trip to Munich? Here are six paintings at the Alte Pinakothek that will make your visit to the city even more worthwhile. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before...
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  6 Significant Buildings to Visit in Venice Venice and its lagoon were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1987 in recognition of its extraordinary cultural heritage. Its architectural riches are almost incalculable; here are just six of the city’s most significant buildings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings...
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  7 Famous Child Prodigies Not all gifted children go on to achieve great things as adults. Here are seven who did. list, child prodigies, chess, mathematics, science, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, John von Neumann, Srinivasa Ramanujan, Judit Polgár Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was the child prodigy par excellence, playing songs on...
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  British Royal Line of Succession It seems simple enough. The eldest child of a British sovereign inherits the throne. But it’s not quite that straightforward—or at least it hasn’t always been that way. Multiple marriages, illegitimate children, and usurpers have all caused succession headaches—and often armed battles. But, while...
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  Famous West Indians in Sports and Entertainment The islands of the West Indies have given the world an incredible range of talented people who have excelled in sports and entertainment. Here are just 12 of them. list, cricket, world’s fastest man, Usain Bolt, Sidney Poitier, Rihanna, Barbados, JamaicaThe Caribbean has produced more than its...
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  Pirate School: 5 Things You Can Shoot from a Cannon For centuries, heavy metal cannons were the epitome of military weaponry. Massive cannons were stationed at forts across the world, while smaller and more-portable guns accompanied troops and naval (and pirate) vessels. While the simple iron cannonball was the most common fodder for these tools of...
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  COVID-19 in 20 Questions These questions and answers have been provided to Britannica by the HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, a Britannica partner. They originally appeared on HudsonAlpha’s Shareable Science blog. Because the COVID-19 pandemic continues to evolve, some of this information may have changed since...
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  Seattle: 10 Claims to Fame As a metropolis with a number of prominent cultural associations, Seattle has a tendency to be reduced to only its best-known attractions when referred to by the mass media. However, the Emerald City is much more than rain, Microsoft, the Space Needle, and people throwing fish at Pike Place Market...
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  9 Obscure Literary Terms Poetry is a precise art. A great poem is made up of components that fit together so well that the result seems impossible to imagine any other way. But how to describe those meticulously chosen components? With highly specialized terminology, of course. Thanks to centuries of effort by scholars,...
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  5 Common Misconceptions About Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that can affect one’s thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors. People with the disorder usually experience a combination of psychotic symptoms, including hallucinations, delusions, and disorderly behavior. Because schizophrenia is widely portrayed in an inaccurate...
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  8 Influential Abolitionist Texts One of the most important and useful means that has been employed by abolitionists is the written word. Freepersons across the globe advocated for the abolition of slavery, but perhaps the most inspiring stories have come from enslaved people themselves, who were self-taught or abounding with...
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  5 Creepy Things from The Thousand and One Nights The story collection known as The Thousand and One Nights has long been considered a treasure-house of literary styles and genres—not surprising because it was compiled over a period of several centuries, and it incorporates material from Arab, Persian, Turkish, Greek, and Indian sources. Medieval...
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  14 Tough Questions Answered Why are there wars? Who is God? These are but two of the “tough questions” about the complicated and the unknown that many people ask. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010). list,...
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  7 Awe-Inspiring Buildings to Visit in Connecticut There’s more in Connecticut than you may think. Here are the buildings you need to see on your next trip, from the Modernist Glass House to the now-renovated Breuer House II. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited...
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  5 Buildings to See in Istanbul From an ancient mosque to a brand-new entertainment center, these are the buildings you have to see in Turkey’s largest city, Istanbul. Plus, learn the awe-inspiring history behind these buildings and their architects. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001...
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  Rest in Peace? Not for These 7 Unlucky Individuals Death is usually the end. For these seven people, things only got weirder after they died. list, death, corpse, Formosus, False Dmitry I, Gram Parsons, Catherine of Valois, F.W. Murnau, Charlie Chaplin, Evita PerónAt least in death one can hope to escape life’s torments and insults. For some,...
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  The Dope on Dope: 8 Facts About Marijuana With the growing movement to legalize marijuana in the United States, the drug is in the news more than ever before. But how much do you really know about it? Here we offer the 411 on 420. list, marijuana, drug, THC, Cannabis, drugs, getting high, 420, bongs, blunts, racism, music, moviesMarijuana...
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  6 Real-Life Man-Eating Animals Humans may be this planet’s dominant species, but our superior intellect doesn’t protect us from occasionally falling prey to larger animals—the so-called man-eaters. Here are a few examples through history. list, man-eating animals, dangerous, danger, human-eating, tigers, lions, leopards,...
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  6 Fictional Languages You Can Really Learn Many of the languages that are made up for television and books are just gibberish. However, a rare few have been developed into fully functioning living languages, some even by linguistic professionals and professors. If learning French and Spanish at school wasn’t quite your cup of tea, you may...
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  Extinct in the Wild but Still Around: 5 Plants and Animals Kept Alive by Humans Extinction signifies the permanent loss of an organism from the planet. A "functionally extinct" organism is one that may have a few individuals still living but will never recover (think Martha the passenger pigeon or Lonesome George the Pinta Island tortoise). Some organisms are "extinct in the...
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  The National Museum of Modern Art in Paris Has These 15 Notable Paintings The National Museum of Modern Art at the Pompidou Centre in Paris is one of the world’s most important museums housed in one of the world’s most iconic buildings. This list includes just 15 of the museum’s tens of thousands of artworks by a diverse range of artists. Earlier versions of the...
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  Secret Service Code Names of 11 U.S. Presidents There are definite perks to being president of the United States. You’re the leader of the free world, you get to live in the White House, and you fly around in a tricked-out airplane. You also get a Secret Service code name. And so do your family members. Below is a list of several presidential...
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  Gorilla gorilla, Sula sula, and Other Animals Whose Names Are Tautonyms—the Same for Genus and Species Among scientists, all species are uniquely identified using a system of two parts composed of each organism’s genus and species names. This system was established in the 1750s by Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus to overcome the confusion caused by the use of vague diagnostic phrases and...
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  11 Architectural Wonders to Visit in Canada A church that looks like a grain silo. A spherical building that inspired the discovery of a molecule. Apartments arranged in a pyramid. These are some of the 11 architectural wonders you shouldn’t miss in Canada. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001...
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  Defying Gravity: 7 of the Biggest Things That Ever Flew From modern planes to prehistoric animals, these are some of the biggest things that ever managed to get off the ground. list, dinosaur, plane, insect, biggest ever, flies, flew, helicopter, spruce goose, flying Officially designated the H-4 Hercules, the massive eight-engine flying boat known as...
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  5 Must-See Buildings in Lagos These must-see buildings in Lagos are worth your time, not just for their exterior design but also for the chance they provide to expand your mind. From new musical groups and local artists to trending fashion, you can see it all in a single trip to Lagos. An earlier version of the description of...
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  6 Paintings to Visit at the Pinacoteca di Brera The Pinacoteca di Brera was founded in Milan in 1809, and it grew to become one of the largest art galleries in Italy. Its collection includes artworks that reach from 4000 BCE through the 20th century. This list includes just six of its notable paintings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of...
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  4 Paintings Found Only in the Thyssen (and 1 Formerly Held There) The Thyssen-Bornemisza National Museum originated as a private art collection during the 20th century. It moved into Madrid’s Villahermosa Palace, newly renovated as a museum, in 1992 and was acquired by the Spanish state a year later. It is located near the Prado Museum and the Queen Sofia Museum,...
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  25 Must-See Buildings in China China’s recorded history stretches back more than 4,000 years. These 25 buildings merely scratch the surface of the country’s rich architectural heritage. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Mark Irving...
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  12 Peculiar Phobias There are hundreds of phobias. Most people know about claustrophobia (fear of closed places), xenophobia (fear of strangers), and acrophobia (fear of high places), but what about macrophobia? Or globophobia? Hopefully, you don’t suffer from listophobia and will read on to learn about some...
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  20 Must-See Buildings in Austria In the early 1990s, an intact mummy was discovered in the Ötztal Alps, on the Italian-Austrian border, that proved to be more than 5,000 years old. What is known today as Austria has been populated for a very long time; the buildings here are just a blip on the region’s history, but they’re all...
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  9 Buildings Worth Visiting in the Czech Republic The history of the Czech Republic reaches back more than a thousand years, and its capital, Prague, reflects that rich and varied existence. This list describes just nine of the Czech Republic’s innumerably significant buildings. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first...
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  8 Notable Buildings in Moscow The site now occupied by Moscow was likely inhabited in Neolithic times, though 1147 is typically considered the year of the city’s founding. It has remained at the center of Russian life, and its architecture is a unique reflection of the country’s history. Earlier versions of the descriptions of...
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  5 Significant Buildings in Delhi These five places are all historically and architecturally significant buildings unique to Delhi. They offer a physical manifestation of the city’s cultural development through time. Earlier versions of the descriptions of some of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before...
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  Behind the Scenes: 12 Real-Life Characters of Texas Rising Although the History Channel’s Texas Rising miniseries is “inspired” by the true story of the Texas Revolution, it doesn’t purport to tell the whole truth and nothing but the truth. Not that there is anything wrong with taking some literary license in pursuit of additional drama, excitement, and...
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  5 Stunning Henri Matisse Paintings to Hang on Your Wall Right Now In 1909 Henri Matisse said, “The painter no longer has to preoccupy himself with details. The photograph is there to render the multitude of details a hundred times better and more quickly. Plastic form will present emotion as directly as possible and by the simplest means.” He grabbed that freedom...
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  7 Historic Buildings (and 1 Temporary Pavilion) in Amsterdam Amsterdam has its origins in a fishing village established more than 700 years ago; by the 15th century, it was Holland’s primary port, a center of business, and a place of great wealth. Its position as one of northern Europe’s preeminent cities has continued to today, and that status is reflected...
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  7 Female Firsts in U.S. Politics On July 28, 2016, at the Democratic National Convention, Hillary Clinton became the first female presidential candidate of a major U.S. political party. Although Clinton was unsuccessful in gaining the presidency that November, her nomination was regarded as another crack in the ultimate “glass...
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  8 Animals That Suck (Blood) Team Edward, Team Jacob, and Team Leeches? Probably not. While Hollywood vampires—especially those in the Twilight series—have a devoted fan base, real-life bloodsuckers aren’t so adored. Transmitters of diseases and often just downright creepy, they prove that drinking blood isn’t always sexy. So,...
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  6 Fast Facts about Alexander Graham Bell Alexander Graham Bell, best known as the inventor of the telephone, also made other significant contributions to society during his extraordinary life. He created other useful tools and devices, he made a lifelong commitment to deaf education, and he helped fund some of the most influential...
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  8 Olympic Cheating Scandals While the Olympics have numerous traditions, perhaps one of its most enduring is cheating. Since ancient times, athletes have often ignored the rules in their quest for glory. Below are just a few of the cheating scandals that have tarnished the Olympics. list, Olympics, cheating, doping, Marion...
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  10 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time Ah, the crack of the bat. The smell of fresh-cut grass. Munching on Cracker Jack while trying to avoid being splashed by the massive beer barely clung onto by the inebriated fan sitting behind you. Nothing says summer quite like baseball, the American national pastime. Baseball’s place in the...
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  Weapons of World War I World War I is known for the savagery of its trench warfare, but the weapons available to the war’s combatants were wide-ranging. list, World War I, machine gun, chemical weapon, tank, battleship, fighter plane Depth charges were first developed by the Royal Navy during World War I to combat German...
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  7 Crocodilian Species That Are Dangerous to Humans Most people have a primordial fear of spiders and snakes and, of course, of predators that are larger than they are. So it makes sense to regard crocodilians (that is, the group of living alligators, crocodiles, caimans, gharials, and so on) with suspicion. Though several of their ancestors were...
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  5 Mysteries of Jupiter That Juno Might Solve The Juno spacecraft arrives at Jupiter on July 4, 2016, after a journey of nearly five years and 2.7 billion km (1.7 billion miles). It will be the first space probe to orbit Jupiter since Galileo plunged into that planet’s atmosphere in 2003. list, Jupiter, Juno, space exploration, solar system,...
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  Military Commanders of World War I Here are the key military leaders who controlled the battlefields of World War I. list, World War I, generals, Erich Ludendorff, Helmuth von Moltke, Alfred von Tirpitz, Paul von Hindenburg, Ferdinand Foch, John Jellicoe, Philippe PétainEdmund Henry Hynman Allenby was the last great British leader...
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  4 Fountains in Italy (and 1 in England) Fountains are a common feature of many cities, but Italy has a handful of unusually notable ones. There’s also one in England that, arguably, reflects the cultural differences between the two countries. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these fountains first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places...
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  St. Louis: 10 Claims to Fame Sure, you’ve seen Meet Me in St. Louis and might even know all about Chuck Berry, Cardinals baseball, and St. Louis blues music. But the Gateway to the West is known for much more than that—much more, even, than we can cover in a short list. We can try, though! Here, in no particular order, are 10...
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  9 Cemeteries to Die For Though it makes us wince to say so, we are all mortal. We may not have William Shakespeare’s sense of humor about that (as, for example, when he has the fatally wounded Mercutio say “Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man”), but we know, intellectually anyhow, that eventually death...
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  Beyond the Cabbage: 10 Types of Kimchi Kimchi is the iconic dish of Korean cuisine and has been gaining popularity worldwide in the past decade or so for its health benefits and its just plain deliciousness. Most people who are new to Korean food think of kimchi as the red, spicy, garlic-laden fermented cabbage dish that usually...
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  11 Memorable Quotes from U.S. Presidential Debates Although debates may seem like an essential feature of U.S. presidential campaigns, they are in fact a relatively recent phenomenon. The first debate between presidential candidates occurred on May 17, 1948, when Republican contenders Thomas Dewey and Harold Stassen matched wits. The debate aired...
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  11 or 12 Things Remembered Well About the Chelsea Hotel ….or Hotel Chelsea, which looms large on West 23rd Street in Manhattan and in the history of American arts and letters as its greatest unofficial artists’ colony. Given the proliferation of renowned novelists, poets, painters, playwrights, actors, filmmakers, and musicians who put head to pillow at...
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  9 Mysterious Disappearances of People Other Than Amelia Earhart It turns out that a number of people throughout history have mysteriously disappeared. Some were famous when they went missing and became even more legendary afterward, and some reached celebrity status simply because they disappeared. Here are nine strange tales of people (aside from Amelia...
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  6 Teenagers Who Made History Once in a while, a very savvy and smart kid makes a difference and changes the course of history. Here are six people who left their mark at a young age. list, teenagers, famous, important, Joan of Arc, Bobby Fischer, Louis Braille, Braille, Malala Yousafzai, Mary Shelley At age 13, believing she...
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  10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci One of the great Renaissance painters, Leonardo da Vinci continually tested artistic traditions and techniques. He created innovative compositions, investigated anatomy to accurately represent the human body, considered the human psyche to illustrate character, and experimented with methods of...
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  Where Did the Moon Come From? The largest and most familiar sight in the night sky is the Moon. Its presence has likely bewitched observers since before the time of modern human beings, millions of years ago. Since then, the Moon has been regarded as a deity by many cultures, and stories have been told of its poetic beauty, its...
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  9 Memorials and Monuments in the United States The United States is filled with memorials and monuments to its past. These nine commemorate some of the most important episodes in American history. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these places first appeared in1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by Richard Cavendish...
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  6 of the First Women to Become Heads of State Throughout history, women have often been pushed to the sidelines in politics and kept from power. As of 2016, only 44 of the 196 countries in the world had ever had a woman as head of state. From earning the right to vote in democracies to holding office and becoming national leaders, women have...
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  8 Amazing Physical Features of Africa The vast expanse of the African continent spans several different climatic regions and contains everything from dry deserts to rainforests to snow-covered mountaintops. Check out some of the most-impressive physical features found in Africa. list, Congo River, East African Rift System, Ituri...
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  8 of History’s Most Famous Vegetarians Vegetarianism (following a meatless diet) and veganism (the avoidance of all animal products) are becoming more and more visible and popular dietary choices. But the idea of skipping meat isn’t new by any means—people have done it since ancient times. Here are a few of history’s most famous...
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  7 Animals That Turn White in Winter As temperatures drop and autumn gives way to the seemingly ceaseless snows of winter, some animals in northerly climes exchange their pelage or plumage of summer drab for the purest white. Unlike many white animals associated with the north, such as polar bears and snowy owls, which are white all...
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  8 Masterpieces of Islamic Architecture The architectural heritage of the Islamic world is staggeringly rich. Here’s a list of a few of the most iconic mosques, palaces, tombs, and fortresses. list, Islamic architecture, mosques, Middle East, Islam, Ottoman Empire, architecture, islamic, alhambra, taj mahal In 1631 Mumtaz Mahal, the...
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  5 Surprising Facts About Bats Here are five facts that will change the way you think about bats. list, animals, bats, flying, mammals, facts, interesting, weird, shocking, surprising, guanoBats are usually divided into two suborders: Megachiroptera (large Old World fruit bats) and Microchiroptera (small bats found worldwide)....
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  6 Lakes That Are Drying Up In general, rain, snow, and other types of precipitation fall in different amounts in different environments. Deserts receive little rain; however, rainforests receive vast amounts by comparison. Between these two extremes lie grasslands, steppelands, and large forested areas. Once precipitation...
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  5 Harvest Festivals Around the World The harvest season falls at different times of the year depending upon region, climate, and crop, but festivals celebrating its arrival are held the world over. Some are first-fruits festivals that recognize the start of the season and the first crops, while other harvest festivals are celebrations...
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  6 Interesting Facts About Fidel Castro Fidel Castro, the father of the Cuban Revolution, ruled his country for 47 years, from 1959 to 2006. For comparison, during that same period, 10 men served as the president of the United States: Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, Ronald...
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  5 Things People See in the Moon The Moon keeps one side facing Earth because its rotation period is the same as its orbital period. The Earth-facing side, the near side, is splotched with dark spots called maria (Latin for “seas”), which are the remnants of giant volcanic eruptions that happened early in the Moon’s history. There...
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  Art History: The Origins of 7 of Your Favorite Art Supplies Art is one of humanity’s oldest pastimes (aside from...you know, that other one). But how different is art today from art a thousand years ago? Two thousand? Five thousand? When exactly did the supplies you’re using for your lecture hall or boardroom doodles come into play? Read on to find out...
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  7 Unsportsmanlike Sportsmen Sports might bring out the best in some people, but not in everyone. The desire to win has often resulted in athletes bending the rules. In fact, cheating in sports has a long and infamous history. The following list is just a small sample of some athletes who seem to have adopted the maxim “if you...
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  13 LGBTQ Writers You Should Read Shrewd observers and lavish prose stylists, the writers on this list deserve your readership. Their variously humane and hilarious portraits of queerness and same-sex love and lust—and the everyday lives of those who experience them—are illuminating, whether you’re gay, straight, or somewhere in...
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  7 Vestigial Features of the Human Body Vestiges are remnants of evolutionary history—“footprints” or “tracks,” as translated from the Latin vestigial. All species possess vestigial features, which range in type from anatomical to physiological to behavioral. More than 100 vestigial anomalies occur in humans. The following list explores...
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  9 Bizarre Myths About Pregnancy Pregnancy is a time of excitement and anticipation, and mothers-to-be are often brimming with questions, many of them, unfortunately, based on myth and superstition. If I drink coffee during my pregnancy, will my baby be born with brown spots? Can looking at a lunar eclipse really cause a deformity...
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  8 Incredible Swimming Feats What are the qualities of a great swimmer? Discipline, toughness, perfect technique, a nutty compulsion to conquer the world’s most inhospitable bodies of water? In this list, we explore eight amazing swimming achievements to keep in mind as you head off to the pool or beach. list, encyclopedia,...
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  7 Quintessential National-Spelling-Bee-Winning Words Since 1925 American grade-school students (and a few from outside the U.S.) have participated in a national spelling bee held annually in Washington, D.C. Students proceed through a series of rounds by spelling words correctly, and the winner of the bee is the contestant who pulls off one final...
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  Rediscovered Artists: 6 Big Names That Time Almost Forgot For every artist who becomes enduringly famous, there are hundreds more who fall into obscurity. It may surprise you to learn that some of your favorite artists almost suffered that fall. Read on to learn about 6 famous artists who were "rediscovered" after nearly being forgotten. list,...
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  10 Devastating Dystopias From delivering powerful critiques of toxic cultural practices to displaying the strength of the human spirit in the face of severe punishment from baneful authoritarians, dystopian novels have served as indispensable teachers to their readers by through propelling them into worryingly plausible...
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  Brain Games: 8 Philosophical Puzzles and Paradoxes Plato and Aristotle both held that philosophy begins in wonder, by which they meant puzzlement or perplexity, and many philosophers after them have agreed. Ludwig Wittgenstein considered the aim of philosophy to be “to show the fly the way out of the fly bottle”—to liberate ourselves from the...
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  6 Common Infections We Wish Never Existed We all miss a day of school or work here and there thanks to a cold or a sore throat. But those maladies have nothing against the ones presented in this list—six afflictions that many of us have come to know all too well. And if by some miracle of hygiene you’ve somehow managed to escape the...
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  10 Questions About Insects Answered Oh no, it’s a bug! There are many different kinds of insects in many different shapes and sizes. Some frighten people, while others delight them. And some play an important role in helping people get healthy. This list will help you gain a greater understanding of bugs. Earlier versions of these...
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  Uninvited Guests: The 7 Worst Parasitic Worms What’s slimy and spineless and looking to parasitize you? (They’re not running for office, if that narrows it down.) Worms! Don’t worry about the fleshy little wrigglers that emerge after it rains…they’re cool with just hanging out in the dirt. But some of their cousins are just itching to turn...
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  19 Essential Italian Churches Italy’s rich architectural heritage includes thousands of churches built across two millennia. Here are 19 of the most notable ones. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these churches first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by Richard Cavendish (2016). Writers’...
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  15 Nelson Mandela Quotes Nelson Mandela (1918–2013) was a South African black nationalist who spent 27 years in prison for fighting against the country’s discriminatory apartheid system of racial segregation. His negotiations in the early 1990s with South African Pres. F.W. de Klerk helped bring an end to apartheid and...
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  Timeline of the Battle of Stalingrad The Battle of Stalingrad marked a turning point in World War II. This timeline identifies the key events during that war’s greatest battle. list, Stalingrad, timeline, battle, Soviet Union, Germany, World War II, EuropeLess than two weeks before World War II begins, Germany and the Soviet Union...
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  5 Fast Facts About Vikings The Vikings were raiders, pirates, traders, explorers, and colonizers who traveled far beyond their homeland in Scandinavia between the 9th and 11 centuries. Here are five fast facts to help you better understand them. list, Vikings, pirates, Scandinavia, Scandinavian history, Norse, Norsemen,...
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  9 Ghostly Planets Humanity has sent probes to every planet, so we now have a decent idea of what’s in our neighborhood. Even before that, astronomers tracked the movements of the solar system for millennia. Sometimes their eyes (or brains) played tricks. Or did they? What ever happened to the ghost planets, those...
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  The Axial Age: 5 Fast Facts We may conceive of ourselves as “modern” or even “postmodern” and highlight ways in which our lives today are radically different from those of our ancestors. We may embrace technology and integrate it into daily life. We may point to new attitudes about religion or stress spirituality and...
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  5 Architectural Must-Sees for Your Next Visit to Stockholm Before you walk over Stockholm’s 50-plus bridges or visit their ABBA museum, you need to put these architectural marvels on your must-see list. From a Neoclassical theater to a Modernist collective housing project to—if you dare—a crematorium that is a mix of both styles, these are the buildings...
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  6 Reasons to Love Cephalopods Cephalopods, those wacky many-armed creatures of the sea, are found the world over—from the oceans to aquariums and on dinner plates. Whether you encounter them daily or not at all, here are six reasons everyone should love (or at least appreciate) cephalopods. list, cephalopods, sea life, marine,...
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  8 Nonhuman Casualties of Hurricanes Even if you’ve never lived through one, you’ve seen the devastation a hurricane can cause to human settlements. News photos document in harrowing detail the loss of life and property that almost inevitably results when one of those storms passes through an inhabited area. Seemingly endless scenes...
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  7 Notorious Women Criminals Female pirates? Murderers? Gangsters? Conspirators? Yes. Throughout history women have had their share in all of it. Here is a list of seven notorious female criminals of the 17th through early 20th century who wreaked havoc on land and sea. list, crime, criminals, women, history, pirates, thieves,...
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  7 Nobel Prize Scandals The Nobel Prizes were first presented in 1901 and have since become some of the most-prestigious awards in the world. However, for all their pomp and circumstance, the prizes have not been untouched by scandals. Slights, questionable winners, and perceived conflicts of interest are among the...
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  Our Days Are Numbered: 7 Crazy Facts About Calendars For thousands of years, we humans have been trying to work out the best way to keep track of our time on Earth. It turns out that it’s not as simple as you might think. list, calendar, chronology, months, years, time, Gregorian, JulianThe Gregorian calendar—the calendar most widely used today—was...
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  10 Important Dates in Mars History The question of whether life could have started on Mars has been asked for centuries—but there’s much more to Mars than that. Here are 10 dates that brought new revelations about the Red Planet. list, space, astronomy, science, mars, exploration, life on mars, martians, meteorites, telescopes,...
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  Nerd Nostalgia: 7 Classic Video Games to Know Video games are currently a billion-dollar industry, with games available for everything from your phone to your home computer and gaming consoles. Popular gaming titles have spawned franchise tie-ins such as movies, comics, and other media. Games weren’t always this popular or widespread, however....
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  6 Oddly Named U.S. Government Operations Whoever comes up with these names deserves a raise or maybe just needs a nap. list, covert, United States, CIA, operations, odd names, U.S. history, military Operation Paul Bunyan—also known as that time the U.S. military deployed helicopters to cut down a tree—commenced in 1976 after the murders...
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  Falling Stars: 10 of the Most Famous Endangered Species They’re known as “charismatic megafauna” for a reason. These endangered animals ooze star power, a factor that conservationists have capitalized on in order to fund projects to protect them (and, often by default, the other organisms that share their complex ecosystems). People are far more likely...
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  6 Cultures That Recognize More than Two Genders Throughout history, many cultures have recognized gender identities other than male and female. Nonbinary people have often occupied unique positions in their societies, serving as priests, artists, and ceremonial leaders. Here are some nonbinary genders recognized by cultures around the world....
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  10 Best Hockey Players of All Time Using algorithms, spreadsheets, statistics, and slide rules, I have determined the best ice hockey players ever. Kidding! I don’t even know what an algorithm is. However, I do know my hockey. So, relying solely on my deeply held opinions, I’ve come up with a very subjective list of the top 10...
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  7 Awesome Frog Species of the Tropics The world’s tropical forests house a spectacular array of frogs. In fact, although found almost everywhere on Earth, frogs are at their most diverse in tropical regions—places like the Amazon rainforest and the forests of Equatorial Africa. The following are seven amazing types of frogs found...
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  10 Ways of Looking at Cells Since 1665, when English physicist Robert Hooke coined the term cell to describe the microscopic view of cork, scientists have been developing increasingly sophisticated microscopy tools, enabling them to view ever-smaller details of cellular structure. Far from the poor-quality microscopes that...
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  6 Classical Dances of India Dance is an ancient and celebrated cultural tradition in India. Folk dances abound all across the country, and huge crowds of people can be found dancing at festivals and weddings. Dance and song features heavily in Indian cinema (so-called “Bollywood” films), too. But where does Indian dance draw...
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  7 Ways Hosting the Olympics Impacts a City Hosting the Olympic Games is great for a city, right? Or at least good? Anyway, it’s not a bad thing—or is it? The truth is that the track record for Olympic host cities is pretty uneven. Many cities have found that welcoming the world’s athletes and their fans for two weeks produces far fewer...
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  6 Unusual Olympic Sports While it may be difficult to get an event added to the contemporary Olympic roster, the early Games were noted for a willingness to include many sports that at best might be defined as questionable…and at worst might be defined as not really a sport. At least organizers were usually quick to note...
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  7 Significant Political Events at the Olympic Games The Olympic Games are a time when many nations come together to celebrate athleticism and mental strength. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) aims to promote sport competition and education free of any discrimination, “in a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play.” The Olympics are a...
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  Some Like It Hot: 9 Soups from Around the World Who doesn’t enjoy a good bowl of soup? Every country has multiple variations in its cuisine. In fact, soup has been around as long as we’ve had vessels that could contain hot liquid. Soup developed as a way to increase the quantity of food if only a small amount was available or to draw nourishment...
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  Black Panther Party: 7 Notable Figures Founded in 1966, the Black Panther Party reached its peak just a few years later, although it did not disband until 1982. Despite its relatively short duration, the group created an enduring—though controversial—legacy. The Panthers’ campaign for African American equality not only had a lasting...
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  7 Awesome Frog Species of Canada and the United States List, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica, list, lists, science, animals, amphibians, frogs, frog, favorite, best, cutestThe cold climate that characterizes much of Alaska and northern Canada is no matter to the wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus). It can endure temperatures as low as...
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  9 American Countercultural Books The word counterculture generally refers to any movement that strives to achieve ideals counter to those of mainstream society. During the 1960s and ’70s, people—particularly young people—in many Western countries sought to upend what they saw as outdated and restrictive values. In the United...
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  There’s a Riot Goin’ On: Riots in U.S. History (Part One) Riots are in the news more than anyone would like to admit, and they have been since before there ever was a United States. Everyone knows what a riot is, right? If it looks like a riot and sounds like a riot, it probably is a riot. Well, yes and no. There are distinctions between the terms that...
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  10 Places in (and around) Paris Ah, Paris the incomparable! For us it’s soaked in romance. Whether you’ve suddenly found yourself with travel brochures in your hand or you prefer to travel from your armchair, Paris is one of those cities with wide open arms. (Cue Maurice Chevalier singing “Paris sera toujours Paris” or Ella...
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  8 Music Festivals Not to Miss Music festivals loom large in rock history, but it took organizers several decades to iron out the kinks. Woodstock gave its name to a generation, but the concert itself was a debacle that nearly bankrupted its promoters. The tragic events at Altamont, held just months later, were immortalized in...
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  7 Important Dates in Mercury History Until the last part of the 20th century, Mercury was one of the least-understood planets. Find out how these seven dates have helped learn more about the smallest planet in the solar system. list, Mercury, space, solar system, astronomy, space exploration, planetsA transit is when one astronomical...
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  7 of the World’s Deadliest Shipwrecks Travel by sea has always carried an element of risk. Accidents, human error, harsh weather, and actions during wartime are among the things that could send a ship to the bottom. While some nautical disasters such as the sinking of the Titanic have captured the popular imagination, others—some of...
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  6 Awesome Dinosaur Species You Should Know You may have heard of the tyrant king of lizards, Tyrannosaurus rex. Or maybe the gigantic Apatosaurus is more your speed. But there are literally hundreds of species of lesser-known dinosaurs. Here are six more species to know. list, dinosaurs, favorite, best, species, prehistoric, animals,...
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  6 Stately Castles in Italy Though the word castle has been applied to some prehistoric structures, the evolution of what we know today as the archetypal castle began accelerating in the 9th century in Europe. But some came much earlier, including one in this list. Here are six of the most notable castles in Italy. Earlier...
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  Why New York Is Called "The Big Apple" and How 8 Other Famous Cities Got Their Nicknames Many cities are known by nicknames. But why? Here’s how nine of the world’s most famous cities earned their iconic monikers. list, geography, nicknames, major cities, famous cities, citiesNew York City is known by many nicknames—such as “the City that Never Sleeps” or “Gotham”—but the most popular...
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  7 Accidents and Disasters in Spaceflight History Closed quarters, vehicles faster than the speed of sound, zero gravity, and extremely volatile rockets. Do any of these things sound particularly prone to accidents? Space travel is tricky work that takes careful calculations and even more careful actions when situations get tough. Here is a list...
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  Art Abuse: 11 Vandalized Works of Art There are times when something makes us so angry that we cannot prevent a visceral reaction, sometimes a physical one. It seems only human. But it seems a little peculiar when that something is a work of art. Following are some instances of art taking it on the chin, who did it, how, when, and what...
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  5 Unbelievable Facts About Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus is one of history’s best-known explorers, but there’s a lot about him that might surprise you. Here are five facts you probably didn’t know about Columbus. list, history, christopher columbus, exploration, america, south america, caribbean, weird facts, nina, pinta, santa...
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  10 Great Sports Rivalries Does familiarity breed contempt? It seems to when rivals compete. Stakes are higher and emotions stronger when adversaries have a history. Again and again, the desire to best an old foe has led to electrifying accomplishments (Thomas Edison versus Nikola Tesla), eleventh-hour drama (David Letterman...
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  8 of the World’s Most-Remote Islands Even in the 21st century, there are places on the planet where few people tread. Lonely mountain tops, desert interiors, Arctic ice floes, or the vast frozen ice sheets of Antarctica are remote places that come to mind immediately. But what about faraway islands of adventure? Are there any that...
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  10 Deadly Animals that Fit in a Breadbox Everybody knows that big animals can be deadly. Lions, for instance, have sharp teeth and claws and are good at chasing down their prey. Shark Week always comes around and reminds us that although shark attacks aren’t as common as Hollywood would have you think, sharks and their vast quantities of...
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  7 Tongue-Twisting Painting Techniques Over the centuries, artists have devised strategies to breathe life and realism into their works of art. What appear to be seamless representations of the real world on canvas were likely the result of endless months—or even years—of trial and error. These tricks of the trade, born of artistic and...
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  Spirited Away: 9 Liquors from Around the World Are you looking for a cocktail that offers a bit more than your usual gin & tonic? Maybe it’s not the drink but the liquor. While some spirits have worldwide success, others haven’t gained the international popularity they deserve. From fiery baijiu to syrupy cachaça, here are nine spirits that...
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  11 Fascinating Nile River Plants and Animals The Nile is Africa’s longest river, it and its principal tributaries traversing parts of 10 countries and several different physiographic regions. As such, the river and its environs are home to many fascinating species of plants and animals. Here are some to know. list, Nile River, plants,...
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  11 Caves That Made History Caves are simply openings in the earth. They can be natural or human-made. They may be of any size and shape. They often are part of larger systems of caves, and they can be found anywhere. But a select few have taken on greater meaning and significance in human history. Here are 11 of them....
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  Botanical Sex: 9 Alluring Adaptations Yes, many plants use the birds and the bees to move pollen from one flower to another, but sometimes this “simple act” is not so simple. Some plants have stepped up their sexual game and use explosions, entrapment, or deception to ensure the perpetuation of their species. Learn about these and...
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  The 7 Best Pinecones (Really!) Growing up in California, I had a lot of exposure to some really amazing natural areas. Always a lover of plants, I had a pinecone collection as a kid and took pride in knowing facts about the trees from which they came. Here’s a list of some of my favorites. They are cooler than you think. I...
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  Woman-Made: 10 Sculptors You Might Not Know Beginning in the mid-19th century, there existed a successful and influential community of American women sculptors. Many traveled abroad to work in Rome, London, or Paris and to study in prestigious art schools that had begun to accept talented young women into their classes. Others found the few...
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  5 Surprisingly Fascinating Forts in France Forts can be dull, utilitarian structures, but here are four forts and one group of forts in France that are rich with significance and interest. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these forts first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by Richard Cavendish...
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  The 6 Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy The Iroquois (Haudenosaunee; “People of the Longhouse”) Confederacy of upper New York state and southeastern Canada is often characterized as one of the world’s oldest participatory democracies. The confederacy’s constitution, the Great Law of Peace (Gayanesshagowa), is believed to have been a...
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  6 Amazing Facts About Gravitational Waves and LIGO Nearly everything we know about the universe comes from electromagnetic radiation—that is, light. Astronomy began with visible light and then expanded to the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum. By using the spectrum, from the short wavelengths of gamma rays to the long wavelengths of radio waves,...
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  To All Nations: 8 Fascinating Jesuit Missionaries The Society of Jesus is a Roman Catholic all-male religious order noted for its educational, missionary, and charitable works. Founded in 1534 by St. Ignatius of Loyola, the Jesuits were key players in the Catholic Counter-Reformation and later served as leaders in the modernization of the church....
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  What’s That Sound?: 8 Intriguing Early Musical Instruments Many early musical instruments are funny. They have laughable names and often produce laughable sounds. Some of them look pretty odd too. Here are a few worthy of closer scrutiny. Look for them at your nearby Renaissance fair, or find a concert in your city. list, early music, musical instruments,...
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  Inventors and Inventions of the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution (1750–1900) forever changed the way people in Europe and the United States live and work. These inventors and their creations were at the forefront of a new society. list, Industrial Revolution, textiles, cotton, wool, thread, yarn, spinning jenny, water frame, spinning...
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  Timeline of the September 11 Attacks Note: All times listed are Eastern Daylight Time. list, September 11 attacks, World Trade Center, Pentagon, American Airlines flight 11, United Airlines flight 175, United Airlines flight 93, American Airlines flight 77, terrorism, Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda, hijacking, United States history, New...
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  Order in the Court: 10 “Trials of the Century” The spectacle of the driven prosecutor, the impassioned defense attorney, and the accused, whose fate hangs in the balance, has received ample treatment in literature, on stage, and on the silver screen. More than once such events have been excitedly referred to as "the trial of the century!" But...
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  Beyond Pi: 7 Underrated Single-Letter Variables and Constants No one can deny that pi (π, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter) is a useful constant—drafted into service every day in furniture workshops, in precision toolmaking, and in middle-school and high-school mathematics classes around the world. π is used to calculate the volumes...
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  10 Things You Need to Know About the Hamilton-Burr Duel, According to Hamilton’s Burr There’s this musical that’s been getting some attention lately, Hamilton. Maybe you’ve heard of it. The show and its creator, Lin-Manuel Miranda, cleaned house at the 2016 Tony Awards by marrying hip-hop and Broadway in previously unimaginable ways, infusing blind casting with new meaning, making...
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  11 Questions About Birds Answered Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010). list, birds Birds have one major feature that distinguishes them from all other animals: feathers. These strong but lightweight feathers, in...
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  7 Questions About Lizards, Snakes, and Other Reptiles Answered Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010). list, reptiles, lizards, snakes, crocodiles, alligators The lizard is a reptile, a cold-blooded animal that is unable to internally control...
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  What Darwin Got Right (and Wrong) About Evolution British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the most celebrated people in the biological sciences. One of his principal accomplishments was voyaging around the world in the HMS Beagle. During the journey, he collected and described many strange and unusual forms of life. For most scientists of the...
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  6 Contemporary Artists Who Redefined Their Mediums What do you think of when you envision a trip to your local art museum? You might picture old paintings framed in ornate gold, Classical nude sculptures, and embellished porcelain enclosed in glass. It may feel as though the objects are trapped in time. But art is not just a thing of the past. It...
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  10 of the World’s Most Dangerous Fish Many people around the world depend on fishes or products made from fishes for their food and economic livelihood. More than 30,000 different species ply Earth’s oceans and bodies of fresh water. The beauty of many fish species is highlighted in fish stores, aquariums, and in home collections. Some...
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  7 of the World’s Most Dangerous Lizards and Turtles To many people, lizards and turtles are bizarre-looking creatures. Many lizards are considered menacing because of their seemingly expressionless faces combined with their claws and teeth, whereas turtles are thought of as slow-moving, docile creatures. Most lizards, in reality, are harmless to...
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  7 Celebrities You Didn’t Know Were Inventors Since 1790 there have been more than eight million patents issued in the U.S. Some of them have been given to great inventors. Thomas Edison received more than 1,000. Many have been given to ordinary people who thought of a better way of doing things. And a few have been given to people you...
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  Nutritional Powerhouses: 8 Foods That Pack a Nutritional Punch Sure, we all know that we’re supposed eat a balanced diet to contribute to optimal health. But all foods are not created equal when it comes to health benefits. Some foods are nutritional powerhouses that leave the others in their dust. Here are some of the more interesting, and in some cases, not...
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  8 Fruits to Try Before You Die As a botanist and a foodie, sampling edible plants is one of my favorite pastimes. The following is a list of fruits that I’d love to try but might have trouble finding in my local grocery store or farmers’ market. How many of these have you eaten? list, fruit, fruits, exotic, tasty, bucket-list,...
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  Woman-Made: 13 Architects You Might Not Know Throughout history, women have been interested and involved in architecture, yet in the 21st century it remains a male-dominated field. Nevertheless, here is a quick list of 13 women architects to know about. They’ve built museums, universities, skyscrapers—even whole cities—in every corner of the...
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  5 Vertebrate Groups How many of you remember the Brady Bunch episode in which Peter was studying for a biology test? He asked Marcia for help, and she taught him the mnemonic: “A vertebrate has a back that’s straight.” Well, not all vertebrates have straight backs, but all have backbones, or vertebral columns, that...
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  6 Cell Organelles Think back to your high school biology class. Do you still remember the names and functions of all those little cell parts? A little foggy on the details, perhaps? Here’s a quick refresher course of some of the major eukaryotic organelles to keep your science skills sharp. It might come in handy...
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  12 Greek Gods and Goddesses Cruel and fickle, passionate and vindictive, jealous and insecure, petty and insane: the inhabitants of Mount Olympus represent an attempt by the ancient Greeks to explain the chaos of the universe through human nature. Thus, like every deity invented before and since, these gods and goddesses are...
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  Behind the Scenes: 9 Infamous Mobsters of the Real Boardwalk Empire The acclaimed HBO series Boardwalk Empire began with the enactment of Prohibition in 1920 and followed the efforts of political boss Nucky Thompson (played by Steve Buscemi) to keep the liquor flowing through the Roaring Twenties. Prohibition ended in 1933, but how did the Boardwalk Empire...
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  Swashbuckling Sisters: 6 Lady Pirates You’ve heard of Blackbeard and Redbeard and Bluebeard, but what about the beardless buccaneers? While women pirates weren’t exactly a dime a dozen even during the height of piracy, there were a surprising number of fearless females who plied the seven seas. list, encyclopedia, britannica,...
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  A Dose of Dolphin-Induced Dopamine: 8 Species of Adorable Cetacean Dolphins are like the Looney Tunes characters of the sea. Perfectly nice in the proper context, they are also klaxon signifiers of bad taste when rendered on t-shirts and human skin. There’s a reason, of course, that these fascinating mammals have such broad appeal. Graceful as gazelles and—due to...
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  Cold Stones: 9 Gems That Will Make You Feel Like a Peasant You might want to stash the rhinestones. The jewels on this list are going to give the rocks that you’ve got some serious inferiority complexes. Grab a loupe and step inside. But don’t even think about pocketing anything…you will be searched at the end of the tour. And before you start assembling...
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  5 Famous Battle-Axes The weapon of choice for these historical women wasn’t beauty, grace, or charm. Instead, they choose to wield cold, hard steel. As in an axe. Or hatchet. Or tomahawk. Thanks in part to such unladylike weapons, these women captured the public’s imagination, inspiring films, books, plays, poems,...
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  9 U.S. Presidents with the Most Vetoes The power of the veto held by the president of the United States has served as an important check on the legislative actions of Congress and has been utilized to varying degrees throughout history. Some presidents have chosen to use it in only a handful of instances, whereas others have completely...
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  9 Britannica Articles That Explain the Meaning of Life The articles in this list don’t have all the answers. However, they serve as a useful primer on the basics—what we know about the universe and how our species evolved, how we perpetuate ourselves, and how we die, and the logical tools we use to understand our world. You’re just a click away from...
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  6 Animals We Ate Into Extinction Humans are not always great at self-moderation, especially when things seem both bountiful and tasty. While extinctions are always multi-faceted, the extermination of some species can be almost directly linked to the insatiable appetites of modern humans. Read on to discover a few of the animals we...
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  10 Incredible Uses for Eggs Reader, consider the egg. It can be poached, scrambled, scotched, roasted, hard-boiled, devilled, pickled, and soft-boiled, all by itself. It can be part of a larger whole: a frittata, an omelette, a salad, benedict, with potatoes, bacon, cheese, green peppers, tabasco, paprika, salt, and pepper....
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  7 Wonders of America It’s almost time for that long-awaited family vacation, and you’re starting to make plans. With so many destination choices, how do you decide where to go? For many families, that choice is often one of America’s national parks. The U.S. government maintains hundreds of national parks, monuments,...
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  Deviously Darwinian: 6 Strange Evolutionary Phenomena Like the laws of human society, the laws of natural selection are ripe for exploitation. It isn’t just survival of the fittest out there. It’s survival of the sneakiest. It’s survival of the prettiest. It’s survival of the most…developmentally arrested. Check out some of the weirder ways that...
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  Everything’s Illuminated: 6 Bioluminescent Organisms Light-producing, or bioluminescent, organisms occur across the spectrum of life—get it, spectrum? There are blinking bacteria, flaming fungus, shimmering squid, and flashing fish. (Interestingly, fish are the only bioluminescent vertebrates and there are no plants that produce light.) Nearly all of...
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  Big Bugs and Colossal Crabs: 7 Invertebrates of Unusual Size We’re not talking about obese bureaucrats here. The creatures on this list literally lack spinal columns…and yet attain relatively massive proportions. Before you reach for the bug spray, consider this: despite their startling gigantism, none of these organisms are harmful to humans (unless unduly...
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  13 Artists Who Died Untimely Deaths Some of the most innovative artists of the Western world were only around for a decade or two during which they managed to make waves and leave an indelible imprint on the history of art. Spanning 600 years, here is a list of 13 of them. Who knows what they may have accomplished had they had a...
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  5 Awesome Parasitic Plants With over 4,000 species of parasitic flowering plants in the world, there are a lot of incredible species out there. Here are five of the most impressive. list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica, list, lists, science, plants, botany, flowers, trees, best, coolest, parasitic,...
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  Botanical Barbarity: 9 Plant Defense Mechanisms There’s no brain in a cabbage. That’s axiomatic. But the lack of a central nervous system doesn’t prevent them, or other plants, from protecting themselves. Some species boast armature such as thorns, or spines that ward off slavering herbivores. Some are loaded with poisons to sicken or kill them....
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  Funky Feathers: 10 Bizarre Birds The Doors famously asserted that no one remembers your name when you’re strange, a fact to which this odd editor can personally attest. Hopefully, though, you’ll remember the names of some of these aberrations of the avian world. The beautiful feathered freaks on this list deserve their day in the...
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  Behind the Scenes: 9 Historical Inspirations for Game of Thrones Millions of viewers have been captivated by the fictional kingdoms depicted in HBO’s fantasy series Game of Thrones, which translates the novels by George R.R. Martin to the small screen. The sometimes over-the-top violence, drama, and magic are often written off as the stuff of fiction, but...
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  14 Questions About Government in the United States Answered The people of the United States live under a variety of governments—the federal government, state governments, and local governments—all with their own powers and responsibilities. This list answers 14 questions about how these governments work. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first...
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  10 Inventions That Changed Your World You may think you can’t live without your tablet computer and your cordless electric drill, but what about the inventions that came before them? Humans have been innovating since the dawn of time to get us to where we are today. Here are just 10 of the hundreds of inventions that profoundly changed...
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  7 Puzzling Plane Disappearances Over the years, aircraft have vanished without a trace, leaving unanswered questions even after thorough investigations. Here are seven of the most puzzling plane disappearances in history. list, encyclopedia, britannica, list, lists, planes, disappearances, mysterious, mystery, history, bermuda...
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  11 Popular—Or Just Plain Odd—Presidential Pets In late 2013, Sunny Obama, the first family’s second Portuguese Water Dog, created quite a stir when she accidentally knocked over a young guest at a White House Christmas event. This presidential pooch was far from the first executive animal to make headlines, though. Here’s a look at some other...
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  Horsing Around: 7 of the Weirdest Racehorse Names in History The naming of racehorses is governed in the U.S. by the Jockey Club. They have the difficult task of deciding which names are permissible and which are not. Names must be unique (unless they are deemed old enough to be used again—some famous names, like Seabiscuit, are off-limits forever), and in a...
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  7 More Domestic Animals and Their Wild Ancestors Your goldfish’s ancestors weren’t gold. Your hamburger’s ancestors are extinct. Rabbits were first domesticated so monks could eat their fetuses. Step inside for a whistlestop tour of some of the weirder facts about animal domestication. If you missed the first installment of this list series,...
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  6 Domestic Animals and Their Wild Ancestors The domestication of wild animals, beginning with the dog, heavily influenced human evolution. These creatures, and the protection, sustenance, clothing, and labor they supplied, were key factors that allowed our nomadic ancestors to form permanent settlements. Though to many urbanites livestock...
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  11 Questions About Useful Plants Answered Which plants are useful to humans, and how do they help us? Learn more about how plants enable us to make fabric, spices, paper, and more—and how they preserve the quality of our environment. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer...
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  Playing with Wildfire: 5 Amazing Adaptations of Pyrophytic Plants A blazing inferno is moving quickly in your direction. You feel the intense heat and the air is clogged with smoke. Deer, snakes, and birds flee past you, even the insects attempt to escape. You would run too if you could, but unfortunately, you are a plant. The fire begins to lick at your leaves...
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  10 Women Scientists Who Should Be Famous (or More Famous) Not counting well-known women science Nobelists like Marie Curie or individuals such as Jane Goodall, Rosalind Franklin, and Rachel Carson, whose names appear in textbooks and, from time to time, even in the popular media, how many prominent or pioneering women scientists can you name? If any of...
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  10 Modernist Art Movements The turn of the 20th century was a time rife with change, chiefly in the way in which people began to perceive civilization as a whole and its overall goal. The outbreak of World War I, or the supposed War to End All Wars, and the unprecedented devastation that ensued challenged the foundations of...
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  10 Frequently Confused Literary Terms From distraught English majors cramming for a final to aspiring writers trying to figure out new ways to spice up their prose to amateur sitcom critics attempting to describe the comic genius that is Larry David, distinguishing between closely associated literary terms can serve a variety of...
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  Know Your Joe: 5 Things You Didn’t Know About Coffee Lots of people are unable to function before their morning cup of coffee. You may have singled out caffeine as the source of its power, but how much do you really know about coffee? Here are five tidbits of trivia to ponder as you percolate. list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica,...
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  7 Scary Surgical Instruments, Then and Now Just thinking about scalpels, forceps, and shears is enough to make some people squeamish. But while the modern versions of those instruments are nothing to sneeze at, consider the surgical knives, gorgets, and trepans of centuries past. Those vintage tools were crude at best by modern standards,...
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  A Model of the Cosmos Sometimes it’s hard to get a handle on the vastness of the universe. How far is an astronomical unit, anyhow? In this list we’ve brought the universe down to a more manageable scale. list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica, list, lists, scale, model, universe, cosmos, solar system,...
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  8 Birds That Can’t Fly Have you ever wished you were an eagle, soaring high above the prairie? How about the mythical phoenix, rising from the ashes? For centuries people have wistfully watched birds take wing and felt a bit jealous. But what about birds that don’t fly? You’d think they’d hold a grudge against their...
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  8 Creepy Critters in the Work of Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe was an early master of horror. He famously seated its source in the soul, writing "If in many of my productions terror has been the basis, I maintain that terror is not of Germany but of the soul.” His uncanny ability to sound the depths of the human psyche is demonstrated in many...
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  Wee Worlds: Our 5 (Official) Dwarf Planets There was much outrage and confusion in 2006 when Pluto lost its status as our solar system’s ninth planet. But we didn’t just lose a planet—we gained five dwarf planets! The term dwarf planet is defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as "a celestial body that (a) is in orbit around...
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  Exploring 7 of Earth’s Great Mountain Ranges Like hiking? Then come and explore the plants and animals of seven of the world’s major mountain ranges! From the towering Himalayas to the austere Atlas Mountains, mountain ecosystems are chock full of interesting organisms. Often considered biological hotspots, many of these regions feature life...
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  9 Fun Facts About Sleep On the outside, we look relaxed, peaceful, and unaware. But what really goes on while we sleep? We spend nearly one-third of our lives—approximately 25 years—in a state of sleep, yet we remember little to none of it. When you hit the pillow, your body doesn’t turn off. It begins an intricate cycle...
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  You Ought to Be in Pictures: 8 Filming Locations You Can Actually Visit While many movie locations exist only on a studio backlot or as a collection of data on a hard drive, some of the most recognizable sites on the silver screen are only a hop, skip, and a transoceanic plane ride away. list, downton abbey, star wars, movie locations, hobbit, lord of the rings, luke...
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  7 of the World’s Deadliest Plants They may look harmless enough, but plants can harbor some of the most deadly poisons known. From the death of Socrates by poison hemlock to the accidental ingestion of deadly nightshade by children, poisonous plants have been responsible for human deaths throughout history. Get to know some of the...
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  7 One-Hit Wonders That Kept Us Wondering Despite dreams of holding fame as long as they could hold a note, these music artists graced the American stage for one act, and one act only. They rode high on the charts, smiling from atop the gold-plated wings of their hit record, before falling from the pages of Billboard magazine and hitting...
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  5 Notorious Greenhouse Gases Greenhouse gases are a hot topic (pun intended) when it comes to global warming. These gases absorb heat energy emitted from Earth’s surface and reradiate it back to the ground. In this way, they contribute to the greenhouse effect, which keeps the planet from losing all of its heat from the...
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  8 Mythological Monsters You Should Be Glad Aren’t Real From towering heights to closed spaces, taxes, and giant insects, the real world offers more than enough things to cause a fright. Why not enter the realm of the fantastic and explore some of the terrifying creatures that roam the wilds of the imagination? Count your blessings—these eight...
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  Christening Pluto’s Moons Before choosing names for the two most recently discovered moons of Pluto, astronomers asked the public to vote. Vulcan, the name of a Roman god of fire, won hands down, probably because it was also the name of the home planet of Star Trek’s Mr. Spock. But cooler heads prevailed. So what names did...
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  9 Celestial Omens In the beginnings of science, astronomers studied the motion of the Sun, the Moon, the planets, and the stars. They discovered patterns in the motion of these objects. But since the heavens were the abode of the gods, when something unusual happened in the sky, it seemed to presage something...
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  The 6 Deadliest Earthquakes Since 1950 The deadliest earthquakes are not typically the strongest ones recorded. Casualties are often a function of earthquake depth (shallow quakes tend to cause more damage), population density, and how much punishment buildings and other structures can absorb before they fail. Some earthquakes, such as...
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  10 Queens of the Athletic Realm Whether it’s on the pitch, the links, the ice, the courts, or the tracks, women have always excelled at sport, and here we’ve selected 10 of the greatest women athletes of all time. Winnowing it down to 10, of course, is always difficult. Did we miss one of your favorites? This list was adapted...
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  8 Hotly Disputed Borders of the World Some borders, like that between the United States and Canada, are peaceful ones. Others are places of conflict caused by rivalries between countries or peoples, disputes over national resources, or disagreements about the past. Eight of the most contentious borders in the world are described in...
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  6 Signs It’s Already the Future Sometimes—when watching a good sci-fi movie or stuck in traffic or failing to brew a perfect cup of coffee—we lament the fact that we don’t have futuristic technology now. But future tech may be closer than you think. It’s possible some of the things you wish for, like the following, have already...
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  7 Drugs that Changed the World People have swallowed elixirs, inhaled vapors, and applied ointments in the name of healing for millennia. But only a small number of substances can be said to have fundamentally revolutionized medicine. Seven of those drugs are listed here, along with some facts that may surprise you. list, drugs,...
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  10 Places to Visit in the Solar System Having a tough time deciding where to go on vacation? Do you want to go someplace with startling natural beauty that isn’t overrun with tourists? Do you want to go somewhere where you won’t need to take a passport or get vaccinations? If you look up in the night sky, you’ll see a few of these...
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  10 Animals With Evolutionary Traits Plucked Straight Out of a Nightmare From frogs that give birth through their mouths to crabs with 6-foot legs, these animals are some of the strangest you’ll hopefully never have to see. list, animals, nightmare, weird, creepy, interesting, strange, crabs, frogs, fish, insects, birds, mammals Besides just looking strange, these crabs...
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  8 Questions About the Moon Answered The Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite, and it’s been a source of human fascination since prehistoric times. In fact, during nine Apollo missions, 24 astronauts (all Americans) have gone to the Moon, and 12 of them walked on it. As part of the Artemis space program, launched in 2017, NASA aims...
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  Fast Facts about the Cell Membrane The cell is the most basic unit of life on Earth, and the development of the cell membrane (or plasma membrane) may be one of the most important parts of the story of the evolution of life. Both prokaryotes (single-celled organisms that lack a distinct nucleus and other organelles) and eukaryotes...
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  9 Palaces in England Among the most opulent historical buildings in England are its palaces. Here are 9 of the most spectacular ones—most of them royal palaces but a few others too. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by...
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  Murder Most Horrid: The Grisliest Deaths of Roman Catholic Saints Beheading, stoning, crucifixion, burning at the stake: In the annals of Roman Catholic saints, those methods of martyrdom are rather horrifically commonplace. There are hundreds of Roman Catholic martyr saints, put to death for their faith, but a few stories (some of which are likely only legends)...
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  7 of the World’s Most Poisonous Mushrooms Although only a few of the 70-80 species of poisonous mushrooms are actually fatal when ingested, many of these deadly fungi bear an unfortunate resemblance to edible species and are thus especially dangerous. Read on to learn more about these terrifyingly lethal mushrooms. list, mushrooms, fungi,...
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  Influential Computer Programming Languages A computer programming language is a medium through which a problem is broken down into its component parts that are then placed into an ordered list of instructions for a computer to execute. Ada Lovelace, a 19th-century English mathematician, is often called the first computer programmer....
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  10 Iconic Churches in Spain The history of Spain is written in the architecture of its churches. Here are 10 of the most iconic ones. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these churches first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by Richard Cavendish (2016). Writers’ names appear in...
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  Philosophers to Know, Part I These five thinkers transformed Western philosophy and shaped its development from antiquity through the Middle Ages and beyond. list, philosophy, history of philosophy, Western philosophy, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Augustine of Hippo, St. Aquinas, St. Thomas Aquinas,...
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  9 Animals That Look Like Leaves Mimicry, in which an organism resembles an unrelated species, is one of the great marvels of evolution. Leaf mimicry is an especially clever form of camouflage. For some animals, looking like a leaf serves as protection from hungry predators. For others, it is a useful way to wait in plain sight...
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  25 Famous Paintings to See the Next Time You’re in Florence Florence is often called the birthplace of the Renaissance, which reached its peak in the 15th century. This Italian city has innumerable artistic treasures, these 25 paintings among them. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before...
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  Philosophers to Know, Part II These five thinkers transformed Western philosophy and shaped its development from the 17th through the 20th century and beyond. list, philosophy, Western philosophy, Descartes, Rene Descartes, Kant, Immanuel Kant, Nietzsche, Friedrich Nietzsche, Wittgenstein, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Heidegger, Martin...
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  5 Famous Border Walls While border walls date back to ancient times, they have become of particular note in the 21st century, which has seen a dramatic increase in their number. Proponents claim that they limit illegal immigration, drug smuggling, and terrorism. Critics, however, assert that walls are ineffective and...
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  8 Animals That Live in Extreme Environments Earth is a planet of environmental extremes, ranging from numbing cold to blistering heat. With only a few exceptions, humans live primarily in temperate regions, but an eclectic array of other creatures thrive in the inhospitable. These organisms are known as extremophiles. Here are a few...
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  Russian Revolution Timeline Note: The dates in this timeline follow the Gregorian calendar, currently in use in Russia and around the world. At the time the revolution happened, Russia used the Julian calendar. Sources using Julian dates differ from the dating presented here. list, Russian Revolution, Russia, U.S.S.R., Soviet...
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  Battles of World War I These battles, listed in alphebatical order, determined the outcome of World War I. list, Marne, World War I, Ypres, Amiens, battles Amiens marked the beginning of a string of Allied offensive successes on the Western Front that led to the collapse of the German army and the end of the war. Cambrai...
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  Leaders of World War I Here are the political leaders who shaped the course of World War I. list, World War I, Allies, Central Powers, leaders, Kaiser Wilhelm, Lenin, Nicholas II, Franz Ferdinand King Albert I led the Belgian army and remained with his troops while Germany occupied most of his country. Asquith led...
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  8 Zoonotic Diseases Animals can bring tremendous joy to our lives, but they can also make us sick. Every year, tens of thousands of people fall ill to diseases transmitted through animal contact. These conditions are known as zoonotic diseases, or zoonoses. Here are some of the most common. list, disease, animals,...
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  7 Paintings You Might Not Expect to Find in Boston The Gardner Museum and the Museum of Fine Arts are two of the great art institutions in Boston where you can see these paintings. The collections in these institutions are significantly more diverse in terms of creators and subject matter than is represented by this list. Earlier versions of the...
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  Flags That Look Alike A national flag is one of the most instantly recognizable symbols of a country’s identity. Usually people can tell which flag belongs to which country, especially given the prominence of flags at international sporting events, such as the World Cup and the Olympics. Sometimes, however, confusion...
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  6 Lost Civilizations Throughout the course of human history, great civilizations have been built, thrived, and declined. Many of these have been well documented by historians, and later civilizations have been able to track their rise and fall. But some seem to have suddenly disappeared. Some civilizations left clues...
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  10 Paintings You Should See at the Met in New York City These ten paintings have caused scandals and sparked mysteries—and you can find them only at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. Start to unravel the complicated histories of Madame X, The Horse Fair, and more in this list. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first...
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  These 8 Buildings Will Make You See Norway in a New Light Norway, by some estimates, is two-thirds mountainous, and about half of its population lives in the south of the country, where its capital, Oslo, is located. These eight contemporary buildings will give you another lens through which to see this Scandinavian country. Earlier versions of the...
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  29 Paintings You Can Visit Only at the Louvre The Louvre in Paris has a collection that reaches from ancient civilizations to the mid-19th century. The museum’s history can be traced as far back as the 12th century, when a fortress was built on the site of the present-day museum; in 1546 King Francis I knocked much of that down and began...
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  8 Extraordinary Paintings at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna The collection of paintings at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna—the Picture Gallery—can be traced as far back as 16th-century members of the House of Habsburg. The building that currently houses the Picture Gallery was opened in 1891, though the museum also has several other expansive...
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  All 119 References in “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” Explained In his Billboard Hot 100 hit “We Didn’t Start the Fire,” American songwriter Billy Joel rattles off a list of historical references in order to argue that his generation…well, like the title says, didn’t “start the fire” of global tragedy, scandal, and screw-ups. Some items in his list are...
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  5 Iconic Paintings by Titian Titian was recognized as a great painter during his lifetime, and he has retained that standing to this day. Here are five of his masterpieces. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings first appeared in 1001 Paintings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Stephen Farthing (2018)....
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  7 Deadliest Weapons in History The earliest known purpose-built weapons in human history date to the Bronze Age. Maces, which were little more than rocks mounted on sticks, had questionable value as hunting tools, but they were superbly suited for smashing the bones and skulls of other humans. Later in the Bronze Age, the sword...
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  9 Muses Who Were Artists The artist-muse relationship is a well-known trope that has been around for centuries (think of the nine muses of Greek mythology). These relationships are often romantic and always dramatic. Sometimes the muses have more to offer than inspiration, however, as did the following nine women. These...
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  6 Paintings to See in St. Petersburg, Russia The artists who created these paintings hail from Venice, the Netherlands, Paris, and other countries around the world, but today you can find their work in St. Petersburg, Russia. Even if you aren’t planning a trip, you can learn more about these incredible paintings right here. Earlier versions...
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  5 Notable Buildings in Hungary From the Great Market Hall to the Gellért Hotel and Baths, these architectural notables are must-sees while you’re in Hungary. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die, edited by Mark Irving (2016). Writers’ names appear in...
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  7 Notable Paintings in Switzerland Swiss cultural life shows strands of German, Italian, and French influence, among others, but its uniqueness is particularly apparent in its art and artists and its museums and other art venues. Here are just seven paintings from that milieu. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these paintings...
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  14 Buildings That Lay Bare Scotland’s Soul “I am a Scotsman,” Sir Walter Scott once wrote; “therefore I had to fight my way into the world.” This list explains how these 14 buildings fought their way onto Scottish soil. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these buildings first appeared in 1001 Buildings You Must See Before You Die,...
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  In the Sea-Language: Sailing Terms in Britannica’s First Edition The following is a small list of sailing terms included in the first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, originally published in 1768–71. If you are a particular fan of sailing, you may recognize some of these as terms still in use today, although some of them are a bit more obscure. If you’ve...
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  The Sun Was Eaten: 6 Ways Cultures Have Explained Eclipses Without a scientific explanation, the darkening of the Sun (or Moon) during an eclipse would be a startling event, to say the least. Throughout history, eclipses have been seen as a disruption of the natural order, and many groups have believed them to be bad omens. Many ancient (and not so...
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  Merry and Bright: 8 Jolly Christmas Plants Deck the halls, trim the tree, and sneak a kiss under the mistletoe! A surprising number of plants are involved with making Christmas merry. Here are eight festive plants that are commonly used as decorations throughout Europe and North America. list, Christmas, decorations, plants, Christmas tree,...
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  Shorthair Cat Breeds From Manx cats to the Cornish Rex, purebred shorthairs vary widely in appearance. Here are a few shorthair breeds. list, cats, shorthair cats, breeds, petsThe Abyssinian is noted for its regal appearance and lithe body with long slender legs. It resembles the sacred cat of ancient Egypt. American...
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  7 Monarchs with Unfortunate Nicknames We have all heard of the great monarchs of history: Alexander the Great, Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great, etc. But what about those who weren’t quite so great? Certain rulers had the bad luck of acquiring some outspoken enemies who used unflattering adjectives—and even, in one case, a...
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  7 Important Dates in Jupiter History When ancient astronomers named the planet Jupiter for the Roman ruler of all the gods and heavens, they had no idea of the planet’s massive dimensions. But the name proved appropriate: Jupiter is larger than all the other planets combined. Here are seven notable dates in humankind’s history of...
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  5 Components of Information Systems The computer age introduced a new element to businesses, universities, and a multitude of other organizations: a set of components called the information system, which deals with collecting and organizing data and information. An information system is described as having five components. list,...
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  6 of the World’s Most Dangerous Birds In 1963 Alfred Hitchcock released The Birds, one of his most iconic thrillers. The movie considered what would happen if flocks of birds, animals that linger in the background of many of our daily lives, suddenly rose up and attacked a small coastal town in California. The film was inspired by a...
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  7 Quizzes That Will Help You Prepare for Your Next Trip You’ve made your hotel reservations. You have your airline tickets. You’ve identified your mass-transit options. But…what do you really know about that place you’re going to? Do you know its capital? Its history? How about its area? Facts are the best things to pack for your trip, so use these...
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  9 Things You Didn’t Know Were Named After People The etymology of words can be complicated. In English many words derive from ancient languages such as Latin (candle) and Greek (biology) or are borrowed from other languages (guru, cigar, karaoke). Some common words, however, actually derive their names from people, though that source is often...
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  List of Lists: 6 Extremely Random Historical Catalogs We all have personal lists we keep. Sometimes they’re short-term lists—like grocery lists (why did I want sour tapioca flour?) or things we want to accomplish next weekend (turn off water to outside faucets, prune azaleas, shred leaves). But sometimes they are lists we may need to consult for the...
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  Alternative Christmas Visitors Santa Claus, a more secular form of St. Nicholas, has been an American Christmas mainstay for more than 200 years. According to tradition, the rotund, bearded, red-garbed elf delivers toys to all good children around the world via a reindeer-guided flying sleigh, while appreciative youngsters gift...
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  10 Classical Music Composers to Know They differed in style, skill, innovation, and popularity, and nothing incites more heated debate among classical music scholars and fans than determining which of these composers of Western classical music are the most essential. The three composers that consistently appear in the top spots are...
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  Korean War Timeline The Korean War was fought from 1950 to 1953, killing at least 2.5 million people. This timeline summarizes this war’s major events. list, Korean War, World War II, North Korea, South Korea, United Nations, MiG Alley, timelineJapan surrenders, ending World War II. That night, U.S. Army officers Dean...
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  6 Important Mughal Emperors At its height, a period extending from the middle of the 16th century to the beginning of the 18th, the Mughal Empire controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent, marshaling vast amounts of money and manpower. The best-known members of the Mughal dynasty are its first emperors—Babur and five...
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  Timeline of World War I Sparked by a political assassination in 1914, World War I inflicted historically unprecedented devastation on Europe. This timeline details the war’s key events. list, World War I, Adolf Hitler, Erich Ludendorff, Woodrow Wilson, Franz Ferdinand, Marne, Ypres, Gallipoli Campaign, Verdun, trench...
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  There’s a Riot Goin’ On: Riots in U.S. History (Part Two) In psychological terms, crowds are aggregations of individuals whose self-awareness and independence of action can become secondary to a common sense of purpose. In general, crowds lack the shared superheated emotions of a mob, but under stressful or dangerous circumstances a crowd can quickly...
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  5 Fast Facts About Flower Anatomy Flowers are beautiful, cheery, romantic, and a bit complicated! Need a refresher course on all those floral structures? This quick list should do the trick! list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica, list, lists, flower, flowers, anatomy, stamen, pistil, anther, stigma,...
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  5 Weird Facts About Venus The ancient Greeks knew the planet Venus by two different names: Phosphorus and Hesperus. Find out more about the second planet from the Sun. list, Venus, solar system, astronomy, space, planetsIf Earth has anything like a twin in the solar system, Venus is it. Venus’s mass is about 0.81 that of...
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  Malta: 8 Claims to Fame The island of Malta, situated between Sicily and Africa in the central Mediterranean Sea, is one of five islands that constitute the country of Malta. Of the other four islands—Gozo, Comino, Kemmunett (Comminotto), and Filfla—only the first two are inhabited. As a result of Malta’s strategic...
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  7 Everyday English Idioms and Where They Come From An idiom is a phrase that is common to a certain population. It is typically figurative and usually is not understandable based solely on the words within the phrase. A prior understanding of its usage is usually necessary. Idioms are crucial to the progression of language. They function in a...
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  Timeline of the Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War began as an attempted military coup in 1936 and evolved into a bloody proxy war that killed hundreds of thousands of people by the time it ended in 1939. This timeline lists the war’s important events. list, Spanish Civil War, Francisco Franco, Condor Legion, International...
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  10 Angry Young Men In July 1957 British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan told fellow Conservatives at a rally in Bedford, England, that “most of our people have never had it so good.” The generation of novelists, playwrights, directors, and filmmakers who became known as the “Angry Young Men” couldn’t have disagreed...
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  Famous Mustaches in History Since antiquity, the wearing of mustaches, like the wearing of beards, has reflected a wide range of customs, religious beliefs, and personal tastes. It was usual in the past to make no distinction between a mustache and other types of facial hair, such as a beard or whiskers, as these were usually...
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  7 of History’s Most Notorious Serial Killers Strictly speaking, a serial killer is someone who murders at least two people in separate events that occur at different times. While “serial murder” is not formalized by any legal code, the crimes of serial killers have often been seized on by the media and the public consciousness—especially in...
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  New Seven Wonders of the World In 2000 a Swiss foundation launched a campaign to determine the New Seven Wonders of the World. Given that the original Seven Wonders list was compiled in the 2nd century BCE—and that only one entrant is still standing (the Pyramids of Giza)—it seemed time for an update. And people around the world...
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  Persian Gulf War Timeline After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, an international coalition led by the United States fought the Persian Gulf War, defeating Iraq six months later. This timeline details the war’s key events. list, timeline, Persian Gulf, Persian Gulf War, Iraq, Kuwait, United States, George H.W. BushIraq...
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  14 Questions About Aquatic Animals Answered Water: the lifeblood of our planet and home to some of the most unique aquatic creatures on this planet. This list includes many fascinating facts about some of the animals that populate the world’s bodies of water. Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second...
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  9 Modern Corporate Criminals This list discusses some of the most infamous corporate criminals of the 20th and 21st centuries, in chronological order of the crimes for which they are notorious. list, corporations, crime, fraud, environmental crime, pollution, manslaughter, obstruction of justice, Enron, Big Tobacco, Philip...
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  Major Events in the Life of Constantine I The emperor Constantine I—also known as Constantine the Great—transformed the Roman Empire into a Christian state and laid the groundwork for a Christian culture to take root across Europe. This timeline identifies the major events in his life. list, Constantine, Christianity, Council of Nicaea,...
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  St. Paul’s Contributions to the New Testament Although St. Paul was not one of the original 12 Apostles of Jesus, he was one of the most prolific contributors to the New Testament. Of the 27 books in the New Testament, 13 or 14 are traditionally attributed to Paul, though only 7 of these Pauline epistles are accepted as being entirely...
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  10 Famous Clowns: From Comical to Creepy Harmless jokers or evil lunatics? While clowns usually aim for laughs, the reaction from many—especially those who suffer from coulrophobia (fear of clowns)—is more like fear. Why? Maybe it’s the masklike makeup. Or because of recent “creepy clown” sightings. One thing’s for sure, clowns seem to...
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  5 Fascinating Battles of the African Colonial Era Trying to colonize an unwilling population rarely goes well. Not surprisingly, the colonial era was filled with conflicts and battles, the outcomes of some of which wound up having greater historical implications other than simply who was victorious. Here are some of interesting and noteworthy...
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  5 Historically Significant Houses in Germany Germany’s cultural heritage is expressed through the homes of some of its most recognizable writers, composers, artists, and thinkers. Here are five of the most notable. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these houses first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by...
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  Periods of American Literature The history of American literature reaches from the oral traditions of Native peoples to the novels, poetry, and drama created in the United States today. This list describes its six major periods. list, American literature, Native American literature, periods, history, writing, authors, American...
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  Falling Far from the Tree: 7 Brilliant Ways Seeds and Fruits Are Dispersed It’s tough for a little seed to make it in the big world. Not only must a seed land in a suitable place to grow, but it must also compete with existing plants for water, nutrients, and sunlight. Rough! Given that both the parent plant and its offspring are usually at a disadvantage if they must...
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  5 Transit Stations Worth Seeing Transit stations are often a place to be passed through on the way to somewhere else. Several, though, are notable enough to warrant a visit. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these transit stations first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by Richard Cavendish...
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  5 Spectacular Churches in Germany Churches in Germany record the long history of Christianity in the country. Here are five of the most spectacular. Earlier versions of the descriptions of these churches first appeared in 1001 Amazing Places You Must See Before You Die, edited by Richard Cavendish (2016). Writers’ names appear in...
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  9 of the Biggest Oil Spills in History Humans have used petroleum (or oil) for thousands of years in medicine and weapons of war. However, the use of this material did not truly surge until the Industrial Revolution—where oil became valuable as both a fuel for illumination and a lubricant—before it became a replacement for wood, coal,...
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  7 Dangerous Plants You Should Never Touch Plants don’t enjoy losing their leaves to herbivores and have evolved a number of ingenious strategies to deter leaf predators. Unfortunately for humans, several of these chemical defenses can cause painful skin reactions. Read on to discover some plants that could burn, blister, or otherwise...
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  The Great Molasses Flood and 6 Other Strange Disasters History abounds with descriptions of deadly earthquakes, storms, plane crashes, and other terrible occurrences. History also provides stories of truly strange things. Sometimes truly absurd and astounding things just happen, and other times mundane natural forces combine with misfortune to produce...
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  The Seven Sacraments of the Roman Catholic church The Roman Catholic Church has seven holy sacraments that are seen as mystical channels of divine grace, instituted by Christ. Each is celebrated with a visible rite, which reflects the invisible, spiritual essence of the sacrament. Whereas some sacraments are received only once, others require...
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  9 Worst Generals in History Alexander, Napoleon, Rommel. Military greatness can most easily be defined by comparison. These battlefield bumblers serve to provide that contrast. list, worst generals, Lee, Confederate, World War I, ancient Rome, Civil War, American Civil War, World War II, NapoleonThis entire list could be...
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  9 Fish Named After Other Animals A recently translated 13th-century bestiary says: “As men learnt little by little about the kinds of fishes they were given names often from their similarity to creatures on land such as frogs, calves, lions, blackbirds, and peacocks.” Indeed, if you scroll through the common names of the known...
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  Abundant Animals: The Most Numerous Organisms in the World Success consists of going from failure to failure without a loss of enthusiasm. So goes the aphorism attributed (probably wrongly) to Winston Churchill. Whatever the provenance of the quote, these organisms have taken the message to heart. They’ve surmounted disease, starvation, predation, and...
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  Timeline of the Spanish Inquisition The Spanish Inquisition was created in 1478. Its purpose was ostensibly to fight heresy in Spain, but its main accomplishment was to consolidate the authority of the Spanish monarchy through violence and terror. This timeline provides key events during its existence. list, Spanish Inquisition,...
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  8 Buzzworthy Types of Bees While honeybees seem to get all the attention, there are actually more than 20,000 species of incredible bees in the world! Bees of all kinds (with a tiny handful of exceptions) are essential pollinators to an astounding 80 percent of the world’s flowering plants. Thank you, bees! Here are eight...
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  Meet the Microbes: 5 Tiny Protozoans and Algae Although many people probably think of bacteria when they hear the term microbe, there are many other microscopic organisms. Many are eukaryotic―i.e., having cells like our own, with a membrane-bound nucleus, as opposed to prokaryotic-like bacteria. While some of these are disease-causing, the...
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  Titanosaurs: 8 of the World’s Biggest Dinosaurs In terms of mass, Earth’s largest mammal is the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus). Weighing approximately 136 metric tons (150 tons) and growing to a length of more than 30 meters (98 feet), it is also the largest animal that ever lived. But growing conditions are different in the ocean. What...
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  Swedish History Is Evident in These 14 Buildings Sweden’s history as a sovereign state stretches back a thousand years, though its boundaries were often changing until the early 19th century. These 14 buildings provide useful snapshots of how the country’s distant past has influenced its more recent history. Earlier versions of the descriptions...
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  Behind the Scenes: 12 Historical Figures in Wolf Hall “Divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived” is how some of us remember in order the fates of the six wives of Henry VIII. Henry’s lifetime affords one of the most compelling and world-altering narratives in European history. Showtime gave us the sex and gore—and some great costumes and...
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  Water Explained in 5 Questions In the series Explained in 5 Questions, experts take on big topics and help you understand them better. list, water, importance, threats, climate change, water purification, drinking water, future, Explained in 5 QuestionsWater is an inorganic chemical compound abundantly found on Earth. Each water...
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  Vile or Visionary?: 11 Art Controversies of the Last Four Centuries Some artists just can’t help but court controversy. Over the last four centuries, many artists have pushed the boundaries of tradition with radical painting techniques, shocking content, or, in some cases, the use of offensive materials. Many of the most innovative artists—the ones who’ve made the...
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  5 Good Books That Inspired Bad Deeds A novel might frighten you, make you cry, or put you to sleep. But can a novel spur you to kill? Here are five novels that have been tied to terrible crimes. list, encyclopedia, britannica, encyclopedia britannica, list, lists, books, literature, authors, murder, crime, inspired, Charles Manson,...
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  The 12 Months of the French Republican Calendar French revolutionaries believed they did not simply topple a government, but established a new social order founded on freedom and equality. Far from limiting reforms to the state, revolutionaries sought to align French institutions and mores on the basis of the new republican ideals through a...
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  The Perils of Industry: 10 Notable Accidents and Catastrophes The fires of industry have long been stoked with sweat and toil. But often, they claim an even higher human price. Britannica examines 10 of the world’s worst industrial disasters. This list was adapted from a post that originally appeared on the Britannica Blog. list, encyclopedia, britannica,...
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  25th Anniversary of Operation Desert Storm In the early morning of January 17, 1991, warplanes, attack helicopters, and missiles belonging to an international coalition led by the United States struck a variety of military and government targets in Iraq, commencing a campaign—code-named Operation Desert Storm—that sought to force Iraq to...
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  200th Anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo Napoleon’s military prowess is legendary, and his victories made him the virtual master of continental Europe for more than a decade. His abdication in 1814 led to almost a year in exile on the island of Elba, but he returned triumphantly to France in March 1815. So began the Hundred Days, which...
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  75th Anniversary of the Lithuanian Holocaust June 1941 marked the beginning of a dark episode in Lithuania’s history: amid World War II and the occupation of the country by Nazi Germany, on or about June 23 the slaughter of nearly the entire Jewish population of Lithuania began. Lithuania’s Jews had lived in the country for hundreds of years...
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  10th Anniversary of the London Bombings July 7, 2015, marks the 10th anniversary of a deadly terrorist attack on the London transit system. Suicide bombers targeted three subway trains and a double-decker bus during the morning rush hour. The bombings, which came to be known as the 7/7 attacks, killed 52 people and injured more than 700....
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  Griswold v. State of Connecticut Turns 50 On June 7, 1965, the U.S. Supreme Court in the case of Griswold v. State of Connecticut affirmed the constitutional right of married persons to use birth control. At the time, Connecticut state law deemed it illegal for a person to use any drugs or devices to prevent conception, and it was also...
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  “O Captain! My Captain!” On the evening of April 14, 1865, as the U.S. Civil War wound to a close, Pres. Abraham Lincoln and his wife went to Washington’s Ford’s Theatre to see the comedy Our American Cousin. There, in his box, the president was shot by actor John Wilkes Booth. Lincoln died the next morning. After a...
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  U.K. Votes on “Brexit” from EU When Britons vote in a national referendum on June 23, 2016, on whether to leave the European Union (EU), they will be considering the biggest British departure from Europe since World War II’s Dunkirk evacuation. “Brexit,” the portmanteau coined as shorthand for “British exit,” has been in...
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  Leap Day, February 29 For adherents of the Gregorian calendar, Monday, February 29, 2016, is Leap Day. A leap day occurs in a leap year, which is a year with an inserted period of time. Leap days are necessary because an astronomical year—the time it takes for Earth to complete its orbit around the Sun—is about 365.25...
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  Eurasian Magpie: A True Bird Brain There is a fair amount of superstition surrounding the Eurasian magpie (also called the common magpie), a bird known for its jet black and white feathers and purple-, green-, and blue-streaked wings. An old British rhyme predicts a person’s fate on the basis of the number of magpies they’ve seen:...
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  Olympics: Artistic Gymnastics With qualifications beginning on August 6, 2016, artistic gymnastics is a highly anticipated international sport. Artistic gymnastics is a separate Olympic sport from rhythmic gymnastics and trampoline, with events including floor exercise, pommel horse, rings, vault, parallel bars, and horizontal...
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  Why Dickens Wrote A Christmas Carol Charles Dickens’s idea for A Christmas Carol originated in the north of England when he traveled to speak at the Manchester Athenaeum, a sort of philanthropic organization for the working poor—a population that was largely uneducated, powerless, exploited by factory owners, and ignored by everyone...
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  Harmful Algal Blooms Algal blooms, or water blooms, are a common summertime occurrence in many places. They occur when a species of phytoplankton suddenly flourishes in a body of warm, shallow water. A bloom can appear in salty or fresh water, and a number of microscopic organisms, including cyanobacteria, diatoms, or...
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  Olympics: New Sports for 2016 The 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro welcome back two sports to the Games: golf and rugby. Both sports earned enough votes at the 121st International Olympic Committee (IOC) Session in Copenhagen in 2009 to beat out baseball, karate, roller sports, squash, and softball for the two coveted...
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  Transit of Mercury On Monday, May 9, 2016, viewers on Earth can see a transit of Mercury, in which that planet crosses in front of the Sun. Eastern North America, western Europe, and most of South America will be able to see the entire transit. For Africa, eastern Europe, and most of Asia, the Sun sets before the...
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  100th Anniversary of the PGA’s Founding The Professional Golfers’ Association of America (PGA of America, or more commonly just PGA) was the brainchild of department store owner Rodman Wanamaker, who believed that the creation of a golf organization would increase sales of the sport’s equipment. On January 17, 1916, in New York City he...
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  Five Years Later: The Great Sendai Earthquake March 11, 2016, marks the fifth anniversary of one of the largest disasters of modern times. The Great Sendai Earthquake (also known as the Great Tōhoku Earthquake) was not too different from the seismic event that generated the cataclysmic Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. It struck in the...
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  Still Singing Her Heart Out She is the streetwise sound of heartache, pain, and resilience. Her lived-in mezzo-soprano voice paired perfectly with her flair for the dramatic—the tight spotlight on her pale face and her expressive hands—as well as her admittedly harrowing life. Many details of Edith Piaf’s life are well known,...
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  The 24 Days of College Football Bowls On December 19 the college bowl season begins as Alcorn State battles North Carolina A&T in the Air Force Reserve Celebration Bowl. It is the first of 42 games that will be played over the next three weeks. While a number of notable bowls are on the schedule—including the Rose, Fiesta, and Citrus...
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  Beethoven at 245 “Dieses Glas dem guten Geist” (“This glass to the good spirit”). So wrote Friedrich Schiller in his poem “An die Freude,” some of which Ludwig van Beethoven used in the glorious ending to his Ninth Symphony. In that vein, we propose that you turn on Stephen Kovacevich’s recording of Piano Sonata in...
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  Mockingjay – Part 2 Opens November 20 The highly anticipated conclusion to the Hunger Games film franchise, Mockingjay – Part 2, opens in U.S. theaters on November 20, 2015. The film is based on the latter half of the third book in Suzanne Collins’s original Hunger Games trilogy and focuses on the exploits of Katniss Everdeen (played...
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  Feliz Día de los Muertos Although often linked to Halloween, the Day of the Dead is a time when death is celebrated, not feared. During the two days of festivities, people don skull masks, decorate graves, and build altars, all to honor dead loved ones and make peace with the eventuality of death. While observed in various...
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  The 600th Anniversary of the Battle of Agincourt A series of disputes—notably the question of the legitimate succession to the French crown—launched the Hundred Years’ War between England and France in 1337. One of the conflict’s most-notable battles was on the muddy ground at Agincourt, France, on October 25, 1415. Copiously armed with longbows...
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  Arthur Miller Centenary Arthur Miller was known for several thoughtful, exceptional plays, notably All My Sons, the Pulitzer Prize-winning Death of a Salesman, and The Crucible. He closely examined his characters’ inner lives, and the hard truths he revealed bore the stamp of his own disillusionment, forged during the...
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  First Day of Fall Denizens of the Northern Hemisphere, brace yourselves. The autumnal equinox, usually occurring on September 22 or 23, means fall is officially here. The autumnal equinox is one of only two days—the other is the spring, or vernal, equinox—when the Sun is directly above the Equator, ostensibly...
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  Ahoy! It’s Talk Like a Pirate Day! International Talk Like a Pirate Day is arguably one of the Internet’s favorite holidays. It may be a surprise to some, though, that this parody celebration is older than social media—older even than Friendster or MySpace. In June 1995 friends Mark Summers and John Baur were playing a game of...
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  70 Years After Hiroshima On August 6, 1945, an American B-29 bomber dropped an atomic bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Two-thirds of the city’s area was destroyed, and by the end of the year about 140,000 had died. Three days later a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki, killing 70,000. Japan announced its surrender...
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  Toronto International Film Festival 2015 The 40th Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) begins on September 10, 2015. The 10-day festival features the full breadth of international cinema, with sections devoted to experimental films, documentaries, shorts, and new works by influential art-house directors. There is even a raucous...
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  50 Years of Medicare In 2015 Medicare—signed into law on July 30, 1965, by U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson—reached its 50th anniversary. The watershed legislation allowed people 65 and older (and some younger people with disabilities) to obtain government-sponsored health insurance for hospital stays, routine checkups,...
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  Special Olympics World Games In 1962 Eunice Kennedy Shriver, sister of President John F. Kennedy, started a summer camp for kids with intellectual disabilities at her home in Rockville, Maryland. The camp, called Camp Shriver, was intended to provide a place for these children to play while also promoting the benefits of...
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  The Assassination of Leon Trotsky The exiled communist theorist and revolutionary Leon Trotsky was attacked by a Soviet agent in Coyoacán, Mexico, on August 20, 1940, and died of his injuries the following day. Trotsky, one of the chief architects of the Russian Revolution, had at one time been regarded as the most likely successor...
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  National Gun Violence Awareness Day A broad coalition of U.S. public health, education, and advocacy groups are marking June 2 as the first annual National Gun Violence Awareness Day. The date was chosen to honor Hadiya Pendleton, a Chicago teenager who was shot and killed in January 2013. Today would have been her 18th birthday....
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  35th Anniversary of Mount Saint Helens Eruption On May 18, 1980, the north slope of Mount Saint Helens, a volcanic peak in the Cascades Range, was blasted away in an eruption that killed 57 people and devastated an area of approximately 200 square miles. spotlight, anniversary, volcano, mount saint helens, eruption, united states,...
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  The 68th Annual Cannes Film Festival The 2015 Festival de Cannes, one of the world’s oldest and best-known film festivals, ran from May 13 to 24 in Cannes, France. Heading the jury that selected the festival’s top prize (the Palme d’Or) were the idiosyncratic American directors Joel and Ethan Coen. French director Jacques Audiard’s...
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  70th Anniversary of V-E Day On May 8, 1945, the European phase of World War II ended with the unconditional surrender of all Nazi German forces to the Allies. The event became known as Victory in Europe (V-E) Day. spotlight, anniversary, v-e day, wwii, world war ii,...
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  100th Anniversary of the Gallipoli Landings April 25 marks the 100th anniversary of the Allied/ANZAC landings on the Gallipoli Peninsula during World War I. spotlight, anniversary, gallipoli, anzac, world war i, wwi, australia, new...
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  Honoring Nelson Mandela Britannica remembers Nelson Mandela. spotlight, nelson mandela, history, south africa, in...
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  Happy Groundhog Day! All eyes and ears turn to the furry forecaster. spotlight, holiday, american, tradition, groundhog, animal, superstition,...
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  Plastic Disaster: How Your Bags, Bottles, and Body Wash Pollute the Oceans Plastic is cheap and durable and has revolutionized human activity. Modern life is addicted to and dependent on this versatile substance, which is found in everything from computers to medical equipment to food packaging. Unfortunately, an estimated 19 billion pounds (more than 8.5 million metric...
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  Man Bites Shark An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. The shark—shaped by evolution to be a swift, powerful predator and a fearsome menace to human swimmers—is now itself becoming prey to humanity’s insatiable appetite for exotic foods. Worldwide shark...
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  When Katrina Struck Between August 23 and 29, 2005, a tropical depression called “Katrina” grew into one of the most destructive storms in American history. After crossing the southern tip of Florida as a tropical storm, Katrina was invigorated by the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which bloated it into a category...
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  What Happened to Einstein’s Brain? Albert Einstein, touted as one of the greatest thinkers of the 20th century, died April 18, 1955, as a result of a fatal aneurysm, in Princeton, New Jersey. Despite Einstein’s wishes to have his entire body cremated, the doctor who conducted his autopsy, Thomas Harvey, had other plans—he kept the...
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  Voting in the U.S.A. While voting would seem fundamental in a democracy, voting rights in the U.S. have long been contentious. The Constitution makes no stipulations concerning who can vote. Instead, it is left to the states to decide, and they have often tried—with varying degrees of success—to limit voting. States...
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  Holi: Festival of Colors Every spring, people across India and around the world celebrate the Hindu festival Holi, throwing colored water and powders on one another in joyous celebration. On this one day—the full-moon day of the Hindu month of Phalguna—societal rankings such as caste, gender, age, and status are eschewed...
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  A Recent History of Climate Change Climate change is a broad topic that includes periodic alterations in Earth’s climate caused by natural forces (moving continents, changes in the wobble of Earth’s axis, and other biological, chemical, and geologic factors) in combination with the effects of various human activities (such as the...
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  The Mechanical Turk: AI Marvel or Parlor Trick? In 1769 a Hungarian civil servant named Wolfgang von Kempelen went to a magic show in Vienna. It wasn’t just any magic show, though. It was being performed in the court of Empress Maria Theresa, and Kempelen, who had training in physics and mathematics, had been invited by the empress herself to...
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  The Legacy of Order 9066 and Japanese American Internment On Feb. 19, 1942, Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, granting Secretary of War Henry Lewis Stimson and his commanders the power “to prescribe military areas in such places and of such extent as he or the appropriate Military Commander may determine, from which any or all...
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  Columbus Day and Its Discontents On October 12, 1492, the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus landed on a small island in the Caribbean, which he named San Salvador (in the modern-day Bahamas) and claimed for Spain (the country that had sponsored his voyage). Although Columbus was not actually the first European to reach the...
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  Olympics: Football (Soccer) Whether you call it football or soccer, one thing is certain: it is the world’s most popular sport. According to some estimates, there are at least three billion football fans worldwide. The final of the 2018 men’s World Cup was watched by more than 3.5 billion TV viewers, while the women’s...
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  Merry Christmas On December 25 most of the world’s two billion Christians will observe Christmas, the festival commemorating the birth of Jesus. (For churches that follow the Julian calendar, Christmas falls on the Gregorian calendar’s January 7.) The customs associated with Christmas come from a variety of...
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  Manatee Awareness Month In 2005 the state of Florida declared November Manatee Awareness Month in honor of the large aquatic mammals that live near the Florida coast and in other warm coastal waters in the Atlantic. Manatees spend their time grazing on plants in warm, shallow water and have no significant natural...
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  Mount Tambora 200 Years Later April 5, 2015, marks 200 years since the beginning of the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history. The catastrophic blast that blew off the top of the volcano—killing tens of thousands of people on the island of Sumbawa and in the surrounding region and bringing about the “year without a...
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  Endangered Species Day Earth is home to more than 16,000 species of plants, animals, fungi, and algae that are currently listed as endangered on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. In the U.S. alone, nearly 700 species of animals and 900 species of plants are considered threatened or endangered. Given that...
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  How Texas Rose The History Channel’s new miniseries Texas Rising brings to the screen the larger-than-life characters and events that contributed to the founding of Texas. Appropriate for a state where everything is said to be bigger, there is much more to the story behind the Texas Revolution than could possibly...
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  Economic Inequality One remarkable consequence of the Great Recession of 2007–09, the worst global economic crisis since the Great Depression, was the emergence of economic inequality as a major political issue in many countries, particularly the United States. Created in part by reckless speculation in...
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  Spotting a Supercontinent: How Pangea Was Discovered Earth of the present day is made up of six or seven continents and four or five oceans, depending on whom you ask. But this wasn’t always the case. Through the course of geologic time, the continents “drift” about on tectonic plates—large parts of Earth’s crust that float on a heated plastic layer...
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  How Rye Bread May Have Caused the Salem Witch Trials In 1692 the small Puritan village of Salem, Massachusetts, was plagued by a sudden and brief cloud of witchcraft accusations. After young girls Betty Parris and Abigail Williams exhibited severe convulsions and other strange symptoms, village doctor William Griggs diagnosed them as having been...
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  “Swinging London” Experiences Jimi Hendrix Five decades ago, in the autumn and winter of 1966–67, Jimi Hendrix launched his star into the firmament of rock and roll legends by becoming an overnight sensation in London. His road to seemingly instant popularity in the United Kingdom and explosive success upon his return to the United States...
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  An Inconvenient Truth: 10 Years Hence This article was originally published on July 14, 2016. It’s hard to believe that it has been 10 years since the cinematic release of An Inconvenient Truth (2006), the controversial film featuring former U.S. vice president Al Gore that attempted to convince the moviegoing public that the problem...
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  Eid al-Fitr The festival of Eid al-Fitr, which marks the end of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan, is celebrated all over the world. Muslims observe Ramadan by reading the Qur’an, emphasizing charity (zakat), abstaining from food and drink during daylight hours, and concentrating on prayer and study to increase...
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  100th Anniversary of the Eastland Disaster An annual picnic outing for the employees of the Western Electric Company turned tragic on July 24, 1915, when the boat that was to take them from Chicago to Michigan City, Indiana, capsized. At least 844 people died in what was one of the worst maritime disasters in American history. spotlight,...
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  75th Anniversary of the Battle of Britain In the words of Prime Minister Winston Churchill, “Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few.” British pilots exerted their dominance over the Luftwaffe in the summer of 1940, ensuring that an invasion of Britain would prove impossible for Hitler’s war machine....
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  Bon Festival Bon, also popularly called Obon, is a major Japanese festival held every July (or, in some locations, August). Influenced by the Buddhist All Souls Day, during which the dead revisit the land of the living, Bon is a time for visiting and cleaning gravestones and for lighting lamps to show the...
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  Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Civil Rights Act remains one of the most important pieces of legislation in American history. The act, signed into law on July 2, 1964, by Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson, was a major breakthrough in the fight against discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin. spotlight, united...
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  Our Lady of Fátima May 13 marks the anniversary of the first of six apparitions of the Virgin Mary to three shepherd children of Fátima, Portugal. Lucia dos Santos (aged 9) and her cousins Francisco and Jacinta Marto (aged 8 and 6, respectively) were tending sheep in central Portugal in 1917 when they had a vision of...
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  Celebrating Caribbean American Heritage The month of June is nationally recognized as Caribbean American Heritage Month in the U.S. The year 2015 marks the 10th anniversary of the month-long celebration. National Caribbean American Heritage Month began in 2005 after the U.S House of Representatives passed a resolution acknowledging the...
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  Celebrating LGBTQ Pride Throughout the month of June, communities in the U.S. and many other nations hold events celebrating lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender identities, often collectively known as Gay Pride or LGBTQ Pride. Gay Pride celebrations are usually a series of events culminating in a parade of colorful...
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  800th Anniversary of the Magna Carta On June 15, 1215, rebellious nobles compelled King John of England to sign the Magna Carta. Although it is firmly rooted in the concerns of feudal law, the charter’s treatment of individual rights was revolutionary. The charter and its numerous revisions codified the concept of due process and...
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  The 40th Anniversary of the Soweto Uprising June 16, 2016, marks the 40th anniversary of the Soweto Uprising (also called the Soweto Rebellion) in South Africa. The uprising took place in 1976 in Soweto township, adjacent to the city of Johannesburg. It began as a protest by thousands, mostly students, against the government’s insistence...
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  ¡Brava, Maestra! Carmen Herrera, who turns 100 years old on May 31, started painting when she was 24. She waited 65 years to sell her first painting. Eleven years later she’s still making art. spotlight, carmen herrera, 100 years old, centenarian, art, artist, abstract painter, geometric,...
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  Ireland’s Same-Sex Marriage Referendum Same-sex marriage has been legalized in jurisdictions around the world, but Ireland is the first country to put the matter to a popular vote. spotlight, same-sex marriage, ireland, referendum, gay...
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  LGBTQ Pride Month Is Here Tired of socializing in seedy bars where they were likely to be harassed and arrested, sick of lying and denying, of withstanding humiliation, of being beaten up, and of living in constant fear of discovery that might get them fired or even killed, the “deviants” at Manhattan’s Stonewall Inn, a gay...
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  Remembering Malcolm X Activist Malcolm X would have turned 90 years old on May 19, 2015. A passionate and gifted orator, Malcolm X rose to prominence as a black nationalist leader who advocated vociferously for civil rights. He was assassinated in 1965 by three Nation of Islam members. spotlight, Malcolm X, birthday,...
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  Anne Frank’s Diary On August 4, 1944, Anne Frank, her family, and four other Jews were discovered after two years of hiding. They were arrested by the Gestapo and sent to concentration camps, where Anne and her sister, Margot, were separated from their parents. After the war, Otto Frank, the family’s lone survivor of...
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  Amazing Mangroves Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees that grow in tropical and subtropical coastal areas around the world. They often form vast impermeable thickets and serve as a buffer between marine and terrestrial environments. Mangroves have been cleared in many places to develop beach resorts and coastal...
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  Salvador Dalí Turns 111 Spanish Surrealist painter and printmaker Salvador Dalí was born on May 11, 1904. Dalí’s art took inspiration from exploring the unconscious, creating suggestive and disturbing images. He’s best known for The Persistence of Memory (1931), a painting of melting watches set against an eerie deserted...
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  Cinco de Mayo Cinco de Mayo (”Fifth of May”) is a Mexican national holiday that celebrates the country’s victory over the French forces of Napoleon III in 1862’s Battle of Puebla. Although the war continued for several years afterward, the Battle of Puebla became a symbol of Mexican resistance to foreign...
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  May the Fourth Be with You Fans of the Star Wars franchise celebrate their love of the saga on May 4. spotlight, star wars, film, pop culture, george lucas, may the...
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  Year of the Monkey February 8, 2016, begins the Year of the Monkey according to the Chinese calendar. Chinese New Year celebrations last 15 days and include a variety of traditions that are meant to bring luck and happiness for the new year. Families hold reunions, small gifts are exchanged, and special foods are...
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  The Haggis! Burns Night in Scotland Scottish food, drink, and verse are celebrated on January 25, the anniversary of the birth of Robert Burns. Burns is regarded as Scotland’s national bard. He composed hundreds of songs and poems in both Scottish and English. Burns Night celebrations run the gamut from simple gatherings of friends...
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  100 Years of Orson Welles Film, theater, and radio director, actor, producer, and writer Orson Welles was born on May 6, 1915. Citizen Kane (1941), his first film, is considered by many to be the greatest movie ever made. spotlight, film, theater, radio, art, anniversary, orson welles,...
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  Avengers Assemble! The Avengers: Age of Ultron, the latest addition to the Marvel cinematic universe, opened in theaters around the world. spotlight, avengers, comics, pop culture, film, joss whedon, marvel, age of...
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  It’s Winter! It’s Summer! Are you getting out your snow boots or your swimsuits? Those of us in the Northern Hemisphere think of December 21 as the first day of winter—but the solstice swings both ways. A winter solstice happens when a hemisphere’s pole is pointed farthest away from the Sun. It has a near point and a far...
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  40th Anniversary of the Fall of Saigon On April 30, 1975, North Vietnamese forces occupied the South Vietnamese capital of Saigon, concluding a three-decade conflict that had claimed more than three million lives. spotlight, vietnam war, saigon, viet cong,...
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  St. Lucia’s Day St. Lucia’s Day is an important holiday celebrating light during the long, dark winter—especially in Scandinavia, where some regions may see only a few hours of daylight. The holiday is celebrated on December 13, close to the winter solstice, which is the shortest day of the year. (In the Julian...
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  How Gemini 8 Made History and Avoided Disaster The Gemini spaceflights of 1965–66 were designed to acquire the skills necessary for the Apollo lunar landing program. A key step was performing docking between two vehicles in space; in the Apollo program, the command module, which carried the astronauts, would have to dock with the lunar module,...
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  Snuffing Out Smoking Although the origins of smoking are unknown, it was first seen among Native Americans, who used tobacco for both spiritual and medicinal purposes. In the late 15th century, sailors returning from the Americas began to introduce tobacco to Europe, where it was soon regarded as an almost universal...
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  What Was the Armenian Genocide? From 1915 to 1916 hundreds of thousands of Armenians were deported from their homeland in the eastern Ottoman Empire by the Young Turk government, which viewed them as a possible ally of Russia in World War I. Many were murdered or died from disease or starvation; conservative estimates of the...
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  World AIDS Day Since 1988, World AIDS Day has been observed every year on December 1. It was created by the World Health Organization with the intent to increase awareness of AIDS and the virus that causes it, HIV, by distributing information and fostering discussion. The day typically involves many activities...
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  Is It Wrong to Own a Flat-Faced Dog? Are flat-faced dogs ugly or cute? It all depends on whom you ask. Although many of us have a hard time understanding the appeal of those bulging eyes and wrinkly, caved-in faces, demand for flat-faced dog breeds such as pugs, bulldogs, French bulldogs, and shih tzus has soared around the world in...
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  Deepwater Horizon Disaster: Five Years Later The Deepwater Horizon oil rig—located approximately 41 miles (66 km) off the coast of Louisiana—suffered a catastrophic explosion on April 20, 2010, that caused the rig to sink two days later. Over the subsequent months it released nearly five million barrels of oil into the gulf. spotlight,...
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  20th Anniversary of the Oklahoma City Bombing On April 19, 1995, 168 people were killed and more than 500 were injured when a bomb exploded outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. It was the deadliest terrorist incident on U.S. soil prior to the September 11, 2001, attacks. spotlight, oklahoma city bombing, timothy...
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  Parting of the Waters There is a line that divides the Americas in two—not the border between continents North and South but a vertical line through their middles. It travels southward from the tip of the state of Alaska through the frost-coated Canadian wilderness, on and over the Rocky Mountains, and deep beyond the...
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  Farewell to Mad Men The first of the final seven episodes of the American TV show Mad Men airs on April 5. The acclaimed drama series, which debuted in 2007, centers on the personal and professional life of New York advertising executive Don Draper (Jon Hamm) amid the glamour and turbulence of the 1960s. spotlight,...
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  Celebrating Ramadan The Islamic holy month of Ramadan is a time for Muslims all over the world to renew their focus on spiritual life and its practical application in daily life. It is the ninth month of the Muslim calendar. According to Islamic tradition, it was on the 27th day of Ramadan that the Prophet Muhammad...
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  150th Anniversary: Lee Surrenders to Grant On April 9, 1865, the commander of the Army of Northern Virginia, Gen. Robert E. Lee, surrendered to his Union counterpart, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, thus effectively ending the American Civil War. At 3:15 PM (EST) on the 150th anniversary of the event,...
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  2015 Cricket World Cup The final of the world’s premier one-day international (ODI) cricket contest, the Cricket World Cup, took place on March 29. Australia defeated New Zealand by seven wickets. Australia captured its fifth World Cup title while New Zealand made its first appearance in the final. The two countries...
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  Harriet Tubman Day, March 10 Britannica celebrates the extraordinary courage of Harriet Tubman, who endured great hardship and danger to free hundreds of slaves. spotlight, harriet tubman, history, society, slavery,...
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  Harry Potter and the Much-Anticipated Return In 1997 novelist J.K. Rowling introduced readers to Harry Potter, a lonely orphan boy who discovers he’s a wizard. Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone (also called Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone) launched one of the most-successful book series in the history of publishing and a...
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  Olympics: Equestrian Three equestrian disciplines are featured at the Rio Olympics in both team and individual events: dressage, jumping, and eventing (the equine triathlon). Each discipline has its roots in the military. In fact, until 1948 only military officers were allowed to compete in equestrian Olympic events....
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  Olympics: Boon or Curse? In September 2015 the International Olympic Committee announced five candidate cities for the 2024 Summer Olympics: Rome, Hamburg, Paris, Budapest, and Los Angeles. However, hosting the Olympics has lost some of its luster. Of the five cities, Hamburg withdrew its bid in November 2015 after a...
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  Olympics: Volleyball Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in 1964, but before it became a competitive worldwide sport, it was a simple game developed at a Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) community center. In the city of Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1895, William Morgan decided to create a new indoor...
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  Olympics: Racket Sports Tennis, badminton, and table tennis are the three racket sports featured during the Summer Olympics. Though all three have different origins and rules, the racket sports are bonded by their use of the handy projectile hitter that gives the grouping its name. Similar games have been played since...
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  Aristotle at 2,400 The year 2016 marked the 2,400th anniversary of the birth of Aristotle, arguably the greatest philosopher who ever lived. His intellectual achievements are remarkable for their astonishing breadth and, in philosophy, for their profound and abiding influence, which continues to the present day....
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  The Afterlife of Miguel de Cervantes Miguel de Cervantes died in Madrid on April 22, 1616. He was buried the next day in a convent. When the convent was rebuilt decades later, Cervantes’s remains were moved, but at some point their exact location became unknown. The grave of Spain’s greatest writer had essentially vanished. But that...
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  Celebrating Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders May is officially designated Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month in the United States, celebrating the accomplishments, contributions, and histories of Asian/Pacific Americans. Asian/Pacific Americans are broadly understood to have ethnic ties to countries in the Asian continent and...
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  Fish in a Barrel, Lions in a Cage: Canned Hunting in the U.S. and South Africa An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. In early December 2003, U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney went hunting. He and nine guests spent the day shooting ring-necked pheasants and mallards at the exclusive Rolling Rock Club in Ligonier,...
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  When the “Hannibal of the Andes” Liberated Chile One of the most-dramatic chapters in the 19th-century struggle for Latin American independence from Spanish rule occurred 200 years ago, in January and February 1817, when the liberation of Chile was won by the improbable crossing of the Andes Mountains by a force of revolutionaries under the...
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  Olympics: Cycling Cycling has been a part of the Olympic Games since the first modern Summer Olympics in 1896. Though there are four different cycling disciplines included as events—road, track, mountain bike, and bicycle motocross (BMX)—the only style of competition to be featured is racing (that means there are no...
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  Beatrix Potter at 150 July 28, 2016, marks the 150th anniversary of the birth of Beatrix Potter, celebrated English author and illustrator of children’s books. Potter wrote 24 children’s tales, infused with Victorian and Edwardian morality, and brought to life many beloved animal characters, including Peter Rabbit,...
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  Libertarianism In the upcoming U.S. election on November 8, the Libertarian Party is likely to receive more votes than any other third (neither Democratic nor Republican) party in the country, and its presidential candidate, former New Mexico governor Gary Johnson, is likely to receive more votes than any other...
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  Super Bowl Sunday: An Unofficial Holiday On Sunday, February 7, 2016, the Carolina Panthers will meet the Denver Broncos in the Super Bowl to determine which team can lay claim to the 2015–16 National Football League (NFL) title and the coveted Vince Lombardi Trophy. The game is considered to be the pinnacle of American gridiron football....
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  American Red Cross Month 2016 Following in the footsteps of every U.S. president since Franklin D. Roosevelt, on February 29, 2016, Pres. Barack Obama proclaimed March as Red Cross Month. Roosevelt first designated March as Red Cross month in 1943, during the height of World War II, in an attempt to honor the humanitarian...
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  Celebrating Le Corbusier August 27, 2025, marks the 60th anniversary of the drowning death of Le Corbusier, one of the iconic architects of the 20th century. His travels as a young man helped him develop the principles he followed as an architect—and wrote extensively about—over the course of his life. Largely self-taught,...
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  World Poetry Day Poetry is a form of literature that often celebrates abstraction and the beauty of words. Written poetry is thought to have surfaced about 2000 BCE with the Epic of Gilgamesh, although poetry likely predates literacy. Though the poetry of today has transformed in form and function, the root of its...
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  Celebrating the 70th Birthday of Bob Marley Bob Marley became a musical legend who instilled the poor of his country with a sense of identity. spotlight, bob marley, music, musician, birthday, jamaica,...
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  Real Stories Behind the Oscar Nominees Learn about the people who inspired some of the films nominated for Academy Awards in 2015. spotlight, spotlight, oscars, academy, awards, film, art,...
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  The Death of Shakespeare On April 23, 1616, English poet and playwright William Shakespeare died in his hometown of Stratford-upon-Avon at the age of fifty-two. His death occurred on or near his birthday (the exact date of his birth remains unknown), which may have been the source of a later legend that he fell ill and...
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  “Thisclose” to Peace in Colombia More than 50 years of war between the Colombian government and the guerrilla forces of the FARC (Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia; “Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia”) have seemingly come to a close. A cease-fire had been firmly in place since 2015, and on August 24, 2016, a final...
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  What is Holy Week? During Holy Week, Christians recall the events leading up to Jesus’ death by crucifixion and, according to their faith, his Resurrection. The week includes five days of special significance. The first is Palm Sunday, which commemorates Jesus’ humble entry (on a donkey) into Jerusalem to observe...
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  The Lost Colony of Roanoke In 1587 a small colony was founded on an island off the eastern coast of North America. The settlement would have been the first permanent English colony in the New World, had the settlers not disappeared owing to unknown circumstances. The lost colony of Roanoke is one of the most notorious...
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  St. Patrick’s Day March 17 began as a feast day in observance of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Over time, the holiday evolved into a secular celebration of Irish culture, green beer, and anything with a shamrock on it. Irish immigrants to the United States were largely responsible for the transition, and...
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  50th Anniversary of Texas Tower Shooting August 1, 2016, marks the 50th anniversary of the Texas Tower shooting, the first mass murder in the United States to unfold on broadcast media as it happened. Having already killed his wife and mother the same day, Charles Whitman, a student and former Marine sharpshooter, took a small arsenal to...
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  March Is Dolphin Awareness Month March is the time to wish your favorite cetacean friends a happy Dolphin Awareness Month. While the monthlong effort to raise awareness for these marine mammals is supported by businesses that keep cetaceans in captivity for profit (such as aquariums and “exotic”-animal appreciators), it’s still a...
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  Optogenetics: Controlling the Brain with Light Developed in the early 2000s, optogenetics—the combined use of genetic and optical (light) methods to control genes and neurons—is among the most rapidly advancing technologies in neuroscience and has the potential to revolutionize how scientists study the brain. With precisely timed pulses of...
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  National Women’s History Month 2016 For too long, women—apart from the likes of Hatshepsut and Cleopatra—have been granted only a marginal place at the table. “Common” women—scientists, doctors, teachers, artists, activists, the list goes on—have played at least as important a part in human history as men. Since the U.S. Congress...
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  Picturing Patricia Highsmith Patricia Highsmith—author of the novel Carol, on which the recent film of the same name was based—would have turned 95 on January 19, 2016. Her novel Carol was an anomaly for her, both in its subject matter, a lesbian love affair, and in its somewhat positive outlook. It was a book that Joan...
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  Why We Celebrate MLK Day In the United States, Martin Luther King, Jr., Day is observed annually on the third Monday in January. The day commemorates the life and work of Dr. King, who was a Baptist minister and prominent leader in the American civil rights movement. People are encouraged to use the day to “reflect on the...
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  Dada at 100 2016 marks the 100th anniversary of the Dada movement’s founding in Zürich, Switzerland. Dadaism arose as a radical, anti-aesthetic, and antiestablishment movement that was founded in its members’ profound revulsion for bourgeois elitism and for the destruction and tragic loss of life taking place...
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  The 100th Indianapolis 500 The Indianapolis 500 celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2011. In 2016 it celebrates another milestone: its 100th running. Why the gap? The first 500-mile race at Indianapolis Motor Speedway was held on May 30, 1911. It was called the International Sweepstakes, and it was a dangerous event: one...
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  Talking Ocean Trash: Ghost Gear Keeps on Fishing An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. In July 2015 a piece of debris from the missing Malaysia Airlines flight MH370 was discovered on Réunion, an island in the western Indian Ocean. Since then, more than 20 pieces of possible debris have been...
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  Celebrating Kwanzaa Millions of African Americans and other members of the African diaspora gather with family and friends each year from December 26 to January 1 to celebrate Kwanzaa. The secular holiday, which has its roots in African harvest festivals, is an affirmation of African family and social values. Kwanzaa...
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  The Disappearance of Amelia Earhart Amelia Earhart is one of history’s most prominent figures in aviation, having inspired numerous movies, books, and plays. Born in 1897 in Kansas, Earhart rose to fame because of her trailblazing accomplishments as a female aviator. At the time, being both a woman and a pilot meant being met with...
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  Telescopes: Seeing Stars Recently the world’s largest single-dish radio telescope was completed in China. The Five-hundred-metre Aperture Spherical radio Telescope (FAST) is, as its name says, 500 meters (about 1,600 feet) across, which makes it 2.5 times larger than the previous largest single-dish radio telescope, the...
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  Coral Bleaching: A Threat to Our Reefs Coral reef ecosystems, second only to tropical rainforests in terms of biodiversity (or the number of species they contain), are home to approximately 25 percent of all marine species. Corals are animals that have a polyp, with one end being a mouth surrounded by tentacles with which it gathers...
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  Ada Lovelace: The First Computer Programmer Ada Lovelace was the daughter of the noted poet Lord Byron and Annabella Milbanke Byron. Their marriage lasted little more than a year, and Ada never met her father. To counteract the "dangerous" mental tendencies of Ada’s father, Annabella emphasized music, French, and mathematics in her...
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  100 Years of General Relativity One hundred years ago this month, Albert Einstein published a series of four papers that introduced the theory of general relativity. After the publication of his theory of special relativity in 1905, Einstein realized that special relativity could not be applied to gravity or an object undergoing...
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  Japan Maneuvers to Skirt Whaling Restrictions Japan informed UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon in October 2015 that the International Court of Justice (ICJ) would not have any jurisdiction over “any dispute arising out of, concerning, or relating to research on, or conservation, management or exploitation of, living resources of the sea.” This...
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  Pirate Week Ahoy, mateys! It’s #PirateWeek at Britannica. Grab your cutlass and your map and join us (here and on Facebook and Twitter) as we unearth some of our greatest pirate-related treasures. First of all, do you really know what a pirate is? What’s the difference between pirates, privateers, corsairs,...
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  Hanukkah, the Festival of Lights Hanukkah falls on the eve of the 25th of the Jewish month of Kislev and lasts eight days. That lands it somewhere in December on the Gregorian calendar (though in 2013 it fell on Thanksgiving in November, an extremely rare occurrence). Also called the Festival of Lights, Hanukkah celebrates events...
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  Remembering the Lusitania Britannica remembers the Lusitania, which sank on May 7, 1915, after being torpedoed by a German U-boat. Nearly 1,200 people died, and the incident contributed indirectly to the U.S.’s entering World War I. spotlight, Lusitania, World War I, U-boat, anniversary,...
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  Year of the Rooster According to the Chinese calendar, January 28, 2017, begins the Year of the Rooster. Chinese New Year celebrations last 15 days and include a variety of traditions that are meant to bring luck and happiness for the new year. Families hold reunions; small gifts are exchanged; and special foods are...
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  Thanksgiving Day in the United States This week the U.S. celebrates the holiday of Thanksgiving, which has been an official national holiday since President Abraham Lincoln, after a campaign by magazine editor Sarah Josepha Hale, declared it as such in 1863. In the modern consciousness, Thanksgiving is strongly associated with the...
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  Returning to a Galaxy Far, Far Away This week, one of the most eagerly awaited cinema experiences of the decade opens at movie theatres around the world. Star Wars: The Force Awakens is the seventh film in a movie and merchandising franchise that has earned more than $37 billion since the first movie blasted through theatres in 1977....
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  The Festival of Lights Diwali (also spelled Divali), the festival of lights, is one of the major holidays of Hinduism and is also celebrated in Jainism and Sikhism. The five-day festival marks the beginning of the Hindu New Year and occurs during the final three days of the “dark half” of the lunar month Ashvina and the...
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  American Utopias From the colonial era on, the United States has had a rich array of self-contained utopian communities, walled off from the mainstream of life and dedicated to pursuing various notions of individual and collective perfection. Although economic factors often made such projects unsustainable in the...
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  Celebrating Elizabeth Cady Stanton at 200 Elizabeth Cady was the daughter of a New York Supreme Court judge. Her father’s influence and her studies at a school that took the education of women seriously laid the foundation for her lifelong commitment to women’s suffrage. At age 25 she married Henry Brewster Stanton, a lawyer and...
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  Veterans Day The holiday that became Veterans Day was first observed as Armistice Day in 1919. The cease-fire that marked the end of World War I took effect at 11:00 AM on November 11, 1918, and U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson declared that the first anniversary of that event should be marked with a day of reflection...
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  America’s Boomer Generation The core of the American hippie movement during the 1960s and ’70s were twentysomethings who belonged to what demographers call the baby-boom generation. This generation, made up of men and women who followed in the footsteps of America’s Silent Generation (born between the early 1920s and about...
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  What the Stanford Prison Experiment Taught Us In August of 1971, Dr. Philip G. Zimbardo of Stanford University in California conducted what is widely considered one of the most influential experiments in social psychology to date. Made into a New York Times best seller in 2007 (The Lucifer Effect) and a major motion picture in 2015 (The...
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  Lizzie Borden Took an Ax... Tragedy shook the small town of Fall River, Massachusetts, on the morning of August 4, 1892. Between 9:00 AM and 11:10 AM, Abby and Andrew Borden were the victims of violent ax murders that are thought to have been perpetrated by Andrew’s 32-year-old daughter, Lizzie. Her stepmother, Abby, was hit...
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  Feral Cats of the Last Frontier An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. There have been more than 30 reality TV shows set in Alaska. Many of these spotlight—intentionally or accidentally—the wildlife in the state and the way humans interact with it. There are grizzly bears,...
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  Juneteenth: Celebrating the End of Slavery On September 22, 1862, during the American Civil War, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared the freedom of all Confederate-held slaves starting January 1, 1863. The emancipation, however, became difficult to enforce in areas where Union presence was...
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  Cheating Death on Everest Mount Everest—the highest point in the world—goes by many names. In Sanskrit and Nepali, it is called Sagarmatha; Tibetans call it Chomolungma; and Chinese call it Qomolangma Feng. The summit, with its elevation of just over 29,000 feet (nearly 8,850 meters), is the pinnacle of mountaineering...
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  Tulip Mania: How a Plant Virus Fueled a Speculative Frenzy Tulips were introduced to Europe from Turkey shortly after 1550. An early recipient of these delicate blooms was the French botanist Carolus Clusius, who was an avid bulb grower and is often attributed with the spread of other spring bulbs, such as hyacinths and irises, across Europe. In the 1590s...
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  Happy Halloween While now associated with costumes, trick-or-treating, and scary movies, Halloween wasn’t always a time of fun and games. The holiday had its origins in Samhain, one of the most-sinister festivals on the Celtic calendar. The ancient Celts believed that on November 1 the souls of those who had died...
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  50 Years Ago: Loving v. Virginia On June 12, 1967, the United States Supreme Court struck down a law in the state of Virginia prohibiting interracial marriage. The case arose when two Virginians, Mildred Jeter and Richard Loving, got married in June 1958. Because Mildred was of African and Native American ancestry and Richard was...
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  First Triple Crown Winner Since 1978? Thoroughbred American Pharoah is the odds-on favorite to win the 147th running of the Belmont Stakes on June 6. If he does, he will become the first horse to win the Triple Crown of American races—by taking the Belmont, the Kentucky Derby, and the Preakness Stakes—since 1978. spotlight, horse...
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  Hell in a Handbag An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. Thorstein Veblen, in his 1899 volume The Theory of the Leisure Class, lists lap dogs prominently among possessions symptomatic of what he termed “conspicuous consumption.” That observation has enjoyed...
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  Columbus Day Columbus Day commemorates the landing of Italian-born navigator Christopher Columbus in the New World—i.e., the Americas—on October 12, 1492. It is a federal holiday in the United States, observed on the second Monday in October. The day typically involves parades, ceremonies, and celebrations for...
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  The “Howl” Heard Round the World Sixty years after its publication in 1956, Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl” still echoes loudly. Not only did it alter the landscape of mid-20th-century poetry, but it also sounded a clarion call for the counterculture that followed and raised consciousness for generations to come. Arguably, however, its...
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  Rio Recap On August 21, 2016, the Games of the XXXI Olympiad ended in Rio de Janeiro, capping two weeks of drama, record-setting performances, and a fair share of controversy. While some observers gave the Games mixed reviews, many considered them a triumph for a city struggling with political instability, a...
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  Olympics: Basketball Basketball has been played at the Olympic Games for 80 years and is the rare team spectator sport that maintains its popularity when played at the Games. Although arguably as popular (or more popular) worldwide, baseball lasted just 16 years as an official Olympic sport (although it has been added...
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  Olympics: The Genetics of Success For decades, athletes have run, jumped, skated, and skied their way into Olympic history. The rest of us watch with wonder, stunned by their unbelievable achievements, left struggling to grasp the reality of their physical feats. To us, many Olympians seem like anomalies in the human continuum,...
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  Zika at the Rio Olympics: Is the Risk Real? In January 2016 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared Zika virus a Public Health Emergency of International Concern because of its rapid spread and its association with a severe deformity known as microcephaly (abnormal smallness of the head) in infants born to mothers infected early in...
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  The Hindenburg, Before and After Disaster On the evening of May 6, 1937, spectators and reporters gathered at Lakehurst Naval Air Station in New Jersey to catch a glimpse of the cutting edge of air travel. The German airship LZ-129—better known as the Hindenburg—was landing. At 804 feet long (more than three times the length of a Boeing...
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  Capability Brown at 300 On August 30, 2016, we celebrate the tercentenary of the baptism (his actual birth date is uncertain) of an outstanding landscape gardener, Lancelot (“Capability”) Brown, one of the pioneers and supreme practitioners of the “serpentine” style that gripped England in the mid to late 18th century....
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  Olympics: Athletics Olympic athletics begins in Rio de Janeiro with the preliminary competitions. The popular sport known widely as track and field has especially high stakes this Olympic Games as returning champions and world-record breakers prepare to defend their titles. Jamaican athlete Usain Bolt is the favorite...
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  The Group of Seven Remembered Say “Group of Seven,” and most folks will assume you are referring to the organization of the world’s leading industrialized countries, whose annual summit provides the mother of all photo opportunities for the leaders of the U.S., the U.K., France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Japan, and, until its...
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  100th Anniversary of the Battle of Verdun February 21, 2016, marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of the Battle of Verdun. The 10-month engagement was the apotheosis of attrition warfare, with hundreds of thousands of lives being exchanged for insignificant territorial gains. This single battle was as long as the entire...
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  Happy 100th Birthday, Beverly Cleary! Beloved children’s author Beverly Cleary turned 100 on April 12, 2016. Once a children’s librarian, she turned her hand to writing in the 1940s, and her first book, Henry Huggins, was published in 1950. That book, and her subsequent body of work as a whole, became classic favorites of American...
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  The 50th Anniversary of the Watts Riots of 1965 Fifty years ago, on August 11, 1965, a heated encounter between a white California Highway Patrol officer and an African American motorist whom he had pulled over for suspicion of driving while intoxicated sparked an angry response from onlookers. It ignited six days of rage—including violent...
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  A Look at Hong Kong and China 20 Years After Reunification Hong Kong spent more than 130 years as a crown colony of the British Empire before the small Kowloon Peninsula and its neighboring islands were returned to China in 1997. Won in parts during the Opium Wars (1839–60), Hong Kong was valued by the British for its strategic location near the mouth of...
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  The Last Book of the Harlem Renaissance God Sends Sunday was the last book of the Harlem Renaissance. It was published in 1931 by one of New York’s major publishers. It appeared in bookstores more than a decade after the start of the concentrated upsurge in artistic creation by African Americans, centered in Harlem, that came to be known...
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  Nostradamus and His Prophecies Nostradamus was a 16th-century seer. He and his prophecies—revered by some, ridiculed by others—are still well known today, centuries after he lived, and continue to be the subject of debate. Nostradamus was born in France in 1503. He first worked as a physician and began his medical practice in...
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  Sinan, the Ottoman Empire’s Master Architect Between the 13th and 16th centuries the Ottoman state grew from a small Turkish principality in Anatolia into a sprawling empire that controlled territory in eastern Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. This transformation was accompanied by the development of a distinctively Ottoman style of...
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  ¡Viva México! On September 16, 1810, a Roman Catholic priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla rang the bell of the parish church in Dolores, Mexico, and called on the people assembled outside to revolt against the Spanish colonial government. Although Hidalgo’s efforts were not immediately successful, the fervent...
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  25th Anniversary of the End of the Soviet Union A eulogy of the Soviet Union would read that the 74-year-old superpower succumbed to a prolonged illness on December 31, 1991. During its final months, increasingly desperate measures were used in an attempt to stave off the demise of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, but these served only...
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  20th Anniversary of the O.J. Simpson Verdict October 3, 2015, marks the 20th anniversary of one of the most controversial jury decisions in American legal history. Former pro-football (gridiron) player O.J. Simpson was found not guilty of murdering his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and her friend Ronald Goldman. The trial received...
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  Dwarfism in Cats: It’s Only Cute ‘til Someone Gets Hurt Once upon a time, Lil BUB met Grumpy Cat. It was not love at first sight for two of the most-famous Internet cats: Lil BUB’s ears flattened, while Grumpy Cat sniffed the air suspiciously. But within days they were napping together. The resulting photos, videos, tweets, and memes of the two...
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  U.S. Exits Paris Climate Agreement At a rose garden ceremony on June 1, 2017, U.S. President Donald Trump declared his intention to pull the United States out of the Paris Climate Agreement. Trump reasoned that adhering to the goals of the accord, which was designed to control and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, would have negative...
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  2016 World Series Preview The 2016 World Series begins on October 25, and it promises to be one of the most-watched (and most-anxiety-inducing) Major League Baseball championships in baseball history. That’s because this series pits the teams with the longest title droughts in both the American League and the National...
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  FIRE! On October 8, 1871, the fire was sparked on the city’s West side. Many eyewitness accounts of the fire are readily available online, and they make for an absorbing read. We herewith offer a unique perspective on that event—that of our forebears, the editors of the 9th edition (the so-called...
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  The Barber of Seville Turns 200 On February 20, 1816, one of the best-loved and most-performed comic operas of all time, Gioachino Rossini’s The Barber of Seville, had its premiere at the Teatro Argentina in Rome. The libretto is based on the play Le Barbier de Séville (1775) by Pierre-Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais, which is the...
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  Smothered in Drought Most terrestrial areas of Earth experience some form of drought on occasion. Whether the drought is permanent, as in deserts and other drylands, or more temporary, as in other environments during unusual stagnant dry periods, drought can take a toll on the plants, animals, and other living things...
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  Barack Obama’s Presidential Legacy Barack Obama became the 44th president of the United States and the country’s first African American chief executive on January 20, 2009, having embraced the audacious hope of promoting a more-inclusive America, providing affordable health care for all of its citizens, arresting climate change, and...
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  Thomas Malthus’s 250th Birthday If you’ve ever taken an economics or ecology class, you’ll surely remember the name of Thomas Malthus, the English economist and demographer who sported the theory that population growth will always tend to outrun the food supply. This thinking is commonly referred to as Malthusianism or Malthusian...
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  Black Pirates and the Tale of Black Caesar During the ”golden age” of piracy in the late 1600s and early 1700s, a pirate ship was one of the few places a Black man could attain power and money in the Western Hemisphere. Some of these Black pirates were fugitive slaves in the Caribbean or other coastal areas of the Americas. Others joined...
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  A Tale of Two Submerged Continents In February 2017 separate studies examining Earth’s geological and geophysical characteristics revealed evidence of ancient sunken continents in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. In the first study, a multinational team made up of South African, German, and Norwegian geologists and geophysicists...
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  That’s a Wrap: Methods of Mummification Mummies have been the antagonists of horror-based media since Western societies discovered them. We have to admit, dead bodies drained of fluids and wrapped in linens can be pretty bone-chilling. However, the process itself is much more than just wrapping up bodies. It involves advanced scientific...
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  Jon Stewart’s Final Daily Show After 16 years, Jon Stewart ends his run as host of The Daily Show on August 6, 2015. Stewart took over for Craig Kilborn in 1999, sharpening the show’s focus on politics and media. During Stewart’s run, the show won 18 Primetime Emmy Awards and became the second longest-running show on Comedy...
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  Harry Potter Turns 18 If books were people, the Harry Potter series would be all grown up. The first installment, Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, was released 18 years ago on June 26, 1997. If that makes you feel old, hold on to your sorting hat—the boy wizard himself, born July 31, 1980, would be 35 this...
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  “Mr. Gorbachev, Tear Down This Wall!”: Reagan’s Berlin Speech The Berlin Wall was erected by communist East Germany and the Soviet Union in 1961 to keep skilled East German workers and intellectuals from fleeing to West Berlin (an urban enclave administered by the United States, Great Britain, and France). By the 1980s it had become a symbol of the tense...
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  Are You Ready for Some Fantasy Football? As reliably as the swallows returning to San Juan Capistrano in March, the end of summer sparks a migration of a different sort, as aficionados of American football cluster in basement man caves, pubs, and Internet hangouts to draft their fantasy football teams. According to the Fantasy Sports...
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  Asa Gray: The Father of American Botany Asa Gray may not be a household name for most people, but the “Father of American Botany” was a remarkable man. Gray was born in 1810. He began his career as a medical doctor but found that his true passion was for plants. He studied botany under John Torrey and became the first permanent professor...
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  What Happened to Acid Rain? During the 1970s and ’80s the phenomenon called acid rain was one of the most well-known environmental problems in Europe and North America, appearing frequently in news features and mentioned, on occasion, in situation comedies of the day. Since that time, the visibility of acid rain in the media...
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  Shine On, Harvest Moon Festival The harvest moon kicks off several festivals and traditions around the world. The full moon observed nearest the autumnal equinox (about September 22 or 23) is considered to be the brightest and biggest full moon of the year. It also coincides with the fall harvest season in the Northern...
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  Yom Kippur Yom Kippur, the Jewish Day of Atonement, is observed on the 10th day of the month of Tishri (falling in September or October). It is the culmination of a 10-day period of penitence and reflection that begins with Rosh Hashana (New Year’s Day). The most solemn of Jewish religious holidays, Yom...
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  Gravity: From Apples to the Universe Why do objects fall to the ground? “Because of gravity,” you say. But what is gravity? The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle said that objects fall because each of the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water) had their natural place, and these elements had a tendency to move back toward their...
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  Rosh Hashana Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year holiday, is held every year from 1 to 10 Tishri (falling in September or October) in the lunisolar Jewish liturgical calendar. It is a time of reflection upon one’s relationship as a Jew with God and upon God’s historical relationship with Israel, his chosen...
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  Unusual Counting Systems In our everyday lives, we use a counting system in which we count from 1 to 10. That seems only logical because our hands are already in what is called base 10, which means the number 10 serves as the base of our number system. Each place in a number corresponds to a different power of 10. For...
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  LPGA’s Evian Championship The Ladies Professional Golf Association’s (LPGA) Evian Championship begins on September 10 at the Evian Resort Golf Club in Évian-les-Bains, France. A field featuring 2015 money-leader Park In-Bee, as well as all-time greats Juli Inkster and Karrie Webb, will strive to capture the last major title...
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  The International Criminal Court (ICC) The International Criminal Court (ICC) is a court of last resort that was created to investigate and prosecute individuals accused of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. The ICC was established by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court in 1998, and it began sittings on...
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  Argentina Celebrates 200 Years of Independence July 9, 2016, marks the 200th anniversary of Argentina’s declaration of independence from Spain. The Argentine independence movement began in 1806, when British attacks on Buenos Aires were repelled by local militia with little help from Spain. Also important were the ramifications of Napoleon I’s...
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  Votes for Women From the founding of the United States until the late 19th century, women were almost entirely excluded from voting or participating in the country’s politics. Women’s suffrage groups gained steam during the 1800s, working separately and together to gather support for a federal amendment that would...
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  Prime Numbers A prime number is any number that can be divided only by 1 and itself. For example, 3 is a prime number because the only numbers that divide it are 1 and 3. The number 4 is not, because it can be divided by 1, 2, and 4. The prime numbers are sometimes called the chemical elements of the numbers,...
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  Gold Fever It was one of the most-significant events in U.S. history, and it all began with a water-powered sawmill. In 1848 Swiss immigrant John Sutter was building the structure along the American River in Coloma, California. On January 24, his carpenter, James W. Marshall, found something that made his...
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  A Trillion Tonnes of Antarctica Fell into the Sea Antarctica, Earth’s coldest continent, is known for its remoteness, its unique fauna, and its frigid surface of ice. Around Antarctica’s periphery, dozens of ice shelves (that is, masses of glacier-fed floating ice that are attached to land) project outward into the Southern Ocean. The two largest...
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  100 Years Since the Death of Leo Frank August 17, 2015, marked the 100th anniversary of the lynching of Leo Frank, an event that shaped the development of the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and spurred the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Frank, a Jew living in Georgia, was a factory superintendent who was convicted―by almost all...
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  Perseid Meteor Shower From August 11 to 14, 2015, the Northern Hemisphere sky will be lit up by the Perseid meteor shower. This year will be an especially good year, since the Moon will not rise until just before sunrise. The best viewing times will be on August 11 and 12, when NASA predicts a possible peak of 100...
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  Would You Eat Bugs? There’s another food revolution coming. And it isn’t a quiet one. It’s practically buzzing. And clicking. And crunching. It’s almost orchestral, really, in a tinny, droning sort of way. That’s right: an increasing number of scientists suggest that if we’re to support our booming population in the...
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  The Controversy over Female Genital Cutting Female genital cutting (FGC) is a procedure that is performed on the genital tissue of a female ranging in age from infancy to adulthood. It can be as little as a small nick or as much as the removal of all the tissue. The practice is viewed by some as a traditional rite of passage and by others as...
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  The Naked Mole Rat’s Latest Superpower Naked mole rats (Heterocephalus glaber) are unlikely to win any beauty contests in the animal world, but they have some amazing abilities. Naked mole rats belong to a group of about a dozen species of burrowing African rodents called blesmols. They have strong blunt heads with incisor teeth that...
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  The Fermi Paradox: Where Are All the Aliens? On a clear night, staring up at the stars induces a sense of simultaneous wonder and insignificance. Humanity time and time again finds itself lost amid the vastness of a universe that we are still struggling to understand. There are many questions we ask ourselves when looking toward the heavens,...
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  Trigger Warnings on Campus In a 2015 letter to their student newspaper, four undergraduates at Columbia University called on the administration to officially encourage instructors to issue warnings to potential students of any “triggering and offensive material” in their courses. The letter writers referred to the case of a...
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  Anniversary of the Tokyo Firebombing On the night of March 9–10, 1945, Allied bombers carried out an incendiary attack on Tokyo, Japan, setting off a firestorm. About one-fourth of the city was destroyed, and some 100,000 people died. The attack came just weeks after a similar air raid on Dresden, Germany. spotlight, japan, world war...
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  The U.S. Opioid Epidemic Since 1999, the death rate from opioid drug overdose in the United States has been on the rise. The rate nearly doubled—from 1 to 1.8 per 100,000 people—between 2013 and 2014 alone. Today the number of drug overdose deaths per year far surpasses the number of deaths from motor vehicle accidents—the...
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  Nuclear Exclusion Zones Humans have colonized nearly every corner of planet Earth, and each day more and more land once thought inhospitable or unusable is being utilized for transportation, agriculture, and buildings. By the early 21st century, it seems only the highest mountain peaks and the most remote parts of ice...
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  The Riots of the Long, Hot Summer The “Summer of Love” in the United States took place alongside rising racial tensions in many of the country’s cities. Nearly 160 riots occurred across the United States in the summer of 1967. While young white Americans traveled to California and other locations to push against one set of cultural...
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  Celebrate Earth Day 2015 marks the 45th annual celebration of Earth Day, observed on April 22 in the United States and elsewhere around the world. Earth Day is a time to acknowledge the achievements of the environmental movement and to raise awareness of ecological sustainability. spotlight, earth day, conservation,...
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  The Eternal Legacy of Treasure Island When we think about pirates, there is a nearly universal image that comes to mind, which has been perpetuated throughout pop culture. Pirates have developed quite the reputation for saying things such as “Shiver me timbers!” and “Arrr!” and for having a peg leg—maybe even sporting a parrot on their...
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  How Service Animals Help Humans Live Fuller Lives An earlier version of this article was published on the Britannica blog Advocacy for Animals. The partnership between humans and animals dates back to the first domestication of animals in the Stone Age, as long as 9,000 years ago. But never have animals provided such dedicated and particular help...
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  The Dramatic Life of Vincent van Gogh In honor of his birthday, Britannica explores the life of Dutch artist Vincent van Gogh, who sold only one painting during his lifetime but whose work later sold for millions. spotlight, art, artists, painter, painting, vincent van...
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  The First Space Walk On March 18, 1965, cosmonaut Aleksey Leonov rocketed into Earth orbit and exited his spacecraft, becoming the first man to walk in space. He floated for an exhilarating 10 minutes. spotlight, science, history, technology, space, astronomy, cosmonaut, space walk, firsts, russia, space...
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  Just How Old Is Homo sapiens? In scientific classification, human beings are tagged with the name Homo sapiens (Latin: “wise man”). In his 10th edition of Systema Naturae, Swedish botanist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus coined the term (describing himself as the type specimen). The genus name Homo refers to the group in which...
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  Celebrating the Birth of a Genius Albert Einstein’s profound array of achievements has made the word "Einstein" synonymous with genius. spotlight, albert einstein, science, history, inventors, scientists,...
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  Saving the World’s Largest Trees There are giants in the isolated Sierra Nevada mountains of California—ancient red giants, the last of their kind. Although they were known for centuries by Native Americans, it wasn’t until the 1830s that the most-massive trees in the world, the giant sequoias, were “discovered” by white hunters....
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  Art Restoration: Beyond Canvas In 2007 a painting called Snorting Copper, which adorned the sidewall of a public toilet in London’s East End, was spray-painted, whitewashed, and covered with wooden boards by local government officials. The controversial and provocative work, which was created by enigmatic guerrilla graffiti...
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  100th Anniversary of Chicago’s Flag The Chicago City Council designated April 4, 2017, as “Chicago Flag Day” in honor of the 100th anniversary of the adoption of the city’s iconic flag. Its design—four six-pointed stars bracketed by two horizontal blue stripes on a field of white—is simple but distinctive. The North American...
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  75th Anniversary of Operation Barbarossa June 22 marks the 75th anniversary of the launch of Operation Barbarossa, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. Although the initial offensive caught the Soviets completely by surprise, penetrating hundreds of miles into Soviet territory and netting hundreds of thousands of prisoners, the advance...
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  Gun Control in the U.S. “Gun control” refers to any legal measure intended to prevent or restrict the possession or use of guns, particularly firearms. (In a broader historical sense, the term also refers to legal limits on the possession or use of other arms, including those that predate the invention of gunpowder.) In...
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  From Pirate to Admiral: The Tale of Barbarossa The island of Lésbos, in the Aegean Sea, is now part of Greece, but between 1462 and 1912, it lay under Turkish dominion. During the 1470s Lésbos was the birthplace of one of the Ottoman Empire’s greatest heroes. The Mediterranean pirate who would ultimately be remembered as Barbarossa (Italian for...
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  30th Anniversary of Chernobyl April 25, 2016, marked the 30th anniversary of the Chernobyl accident, the worst disaster in the history of nuclear power generation. The Chernobyl power station, located in the town of Pryp’yat (now in Ukraine), consisted of four 1,000-megawatt nuclear reactors. During the night of April 25–26,...
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  50th Anniversary of Star Trek September 8, 2016, is the 50th anniversary of the premiere of Star Trek on NBC. The series documented the five-year mission of the crew of the USS Enterprise to “seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before.” Under the command of the charismatic (and frequently...
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  The 40th Anniversary of Star Wars Star Wars, first released on May 25, 1977, was one of the defining motion pictures in cinema history, and, for many people who lived during the era of bewilderment and cynicism following U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon’s resignation and the end of the Vietnam War, seeing the film for the first time became...
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  How Botanical Gardens Save Plants with Science Many people think of botanical gardens as little more than highly landscaped parks. Full of beauty and peace, botanical gardens are indeed perfect for a few hours to yourself, and many of them were initially designed for aesthetics alone. However, most modern botanical gardens have evolved to...
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  Ocean Acidification: How Carbon Dioxide Is Hurting the Seas The Keeling Curve is one of climatology’s most enduring and useful tools. It’s a graph that has tracked seasonal and annual changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations since 1958 at Hawaii’s Mauna Loa Observatory. The curve shows that average concentrations increased from about 316...
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  Too Good to Rot? Saints with Incorrupt Bodies If you’ve ever explored a Roman Catholic basilica or cathedral in Europe, it is possible you may have encountered the “incorrupt" body of a saint on display. Throughout the church’s long history, the bodies of many saints have been disinterred, often to move them to new, more prestigious burial...
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  Horseshoe Crab: A Key Player in Ecology, Medicine, and More During evenings of the full and new moons in the months of May and June, horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus) spawn along the beaches of estuaries of several Mid-Atlantic states. Delaware Bay, an estuary separating Delaware from New Jersey, plays host to the world’s largest horseshoe crab...
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  A Brief History of Shotgun Houses One of the iconic building types associated with the American South is the shotgun house. These homes, usually built in African American communities in the 19th and early 20th centuries, have often been overlooked as a part of America’s architectural history, but today they are appreciated for...
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  The Attack on Pearl Harbor On December 7, 1941, more than 2,300 U.S. military personnel were killed, more than 1,100 were wounded, and eight battleships were damaged or destroyed when the American naval base at Pearl Harbor was, in the words of U.S. Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, “suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval...
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  Olympics: Martial Arts Fighting sports were among the first contests to be included in the ancient Olympic Games. Only footraces predated wrestling, which was introduced in 708 BCE, and boxing made its debut as an event 20 years later. In 648 BCE pankration, an ancient precursor to modern mixed martial arts, became an...
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  Running of the Bulls Every year from July 6 to July 14, the city of Pamplona in northeastern Spain holds a rollicking festival dedicated to the city’s first bishop and patron, Saint Fermín. There’s drinking, parades, dancing, and revelry late into the night. To an uninitiated observer, it would all look pretty normal...
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  The Origin of the Winter Olympics The first organized international competition involving winter sports was introduced just five years after the birth of the modern Olympics in 1896. Known as the Nordic Games, this competition included athletes predominantly from Nordic countries (such as Norway and Sweden). It was held eight times...
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  The Solar Eclipse That Made Albert Einstein a Science Celebrity In February 1919 two teams of astronomers from the Greenwich and Cambridge observatories set out for Sobral, Brazil, and Príncipe (an island off the coast of Africa), respectively, with sophisticated equipment that would allow them to photograph a solar eclipse as it cut across South America, the...
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  Neo-Impressionism: What Was the Point? Neo-Impressionism, literally “new Impressionism,” was an avant-garde art movement that fell under the larger Post-Impressionism umbrella. It emerged in reaction to what was viewed as the overly free and spontaneous painting practices of the Impressionists and rooted itself in a methodical and...
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  Happy 100th Birthday, National Park Service! While Old Faithful in Yellowstone National Park is now considered a treasured U.S. landmark, in the 1800s some people viewed it quite differently—as a laundromat. Explorers and soldiers reportedly placed their clothing in Old Faithful, which would clean the garments when it erupted. In addition,...
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  The Mold that Wrecked Ireland The humble potato is native to the Peruvian-Bolivian Andes and was cultivated by the Incas as early as 1,800 years ago. Although the Incas domesticated hundreds of types of potatoes, the invading Spaniards only brought a handful of varieties back with them to Europe during the second half of the...
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  Measuring the Reign of Homo naledi The first remains of Homo naledi were found by cavers in September 2013 in a remote alcove (the Dinaledi Chamber) deep within the Rising Star cave complex in South Africa’s Transvaal region. The species, whose bones bore similarities to the remains of other species within the human genus Homo, as...
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  Feminism: From Ancient Rome to the Women’s March Dictionary publisher Merriam-Webster chose feminism as its 2017 Word of the Year, in response to both the massive Women’s Marches in American cities over the weekend following President Donald Trump’s inauguration and the scores of women who came forward to out famous and influential men for past...
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  Molecular Machines: Making for the Future How small are the smallest machines? Put simply, they are almost unimaginably tiny. Thanks to breakthroughs in the field of mechanical bond chemistry—the study of physical attachments (as opposed to chemical bonds) that exist between interlocked molecules—the smallest machines now possible measure...
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  ISIL: Horror, Outrage, Confusion Civil war in Syria and sectarian upheaval in Iraq allowed the radical Islamist group ISIL to seize control of a large piece of territory spanning the Iraq-Syria border in 2013 and 2014. The group’s sudden rise upended regional politics, and its brutal tactics provoked shock and anger around the...
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  How Long Do Queen Bees Live? There are a number of species of social bees with colonies dependent on a queen. The most ubiquitous and well known of these is the western honeybee (Apis mellifera), from which most commercial honey is harvested. A western honeybee queen can live up to five years—a remarkable lifespan given that...
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  Why Do Filipinos Have Spanish Last Names? Filipinos commonly bear Spanish surnames as a result of a colonial administrative reform introduced in 1849, when the Philippines was under Spanish colonial rule. The reform, implemented by Governor-General Narciso Clavería and known as the Clavería Decree, mandated the adoption of standardized...
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  Who Won the Space Race? The United States is generally considered to have won the Space Race. The Space Race was a fierce rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, defined by major milestones in space exploration. The Soviet Union initially took the lead by launching Sputnik 1, the first artificial...
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  How Do Quantum Computers Work? Quantum computers work by leveraging the principles of quantum mechanics to perform computations in ways that classical computers cannot. Central to quantum computing is the concept of qubits, the quantum equivalent of classical bits (the smallest unit of data used in computer operations). While...
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  How Do Fish Breathe? Fish primarily breathe through gills, which are specialized organs that extract dissolved oxygen from water. The gills are located behind and to the side of the mouth cavity and consist of fleshy filaments supported by bony gill arches. The filaments are rich in blood vessels and provide a large...
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  What Is the Difference Between a Violin and a Viola? The primary difference between a violin and a viola lies in their size, tuning, tone, and role within an ensemble. The viola is slightly larger than the full-size violin, which typically has a body length of about 14 inches (35 cm), whereas standard violas for adults range from 15 to 16.5 inches...
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  What Is the Loudest Animal on Earth? The sperm whale is the loudest animal on Earth. These majestic creatures can produce sounds that reach an astonishing 230 decibels. To put that into perspective, a jet engine, which is loud enough to cause hearing damage, produces about 150 decibels. The sperm whale’s vocalizations (called clicks)...
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  How Does Dry Cleaning Work? Dry cleaning works by using chemical solvents to clean textiles instead of water. In essence, dry cleaning still uses liquid; however, the process is known as dry cleaning simply because the solvents used are not water-based. Such solvents, which are often halides or organohalogens, have a knack...
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  How Big Is Earth? Earth has a diameter at the Equator of about 12,756 kilometers (7,926 miles), making it the fifth largest planet in the solar system. Earth’s mass is about 5.97 ⨉ 1024 kilograms. Dividing this mass by Earth’s volume results in an average density of approximately 5,517 kilograms per cubic meter....
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  Timeline of European Colonization of Africa The African continent has been inhabited since the dawn of humanity and has been home to many societies and civilizations over the millennia. Throughout Africa’s later history, multiple powers beyond the continent have laid claim to its territory, but the most significant group to assert claims in...
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  Why Are Dogs So Loyal? Dogs are loyal due to their evolutionary history, domestication process, and the strong bonds they form with humans. As descendants of wolves, dogs have inherited pack behavior, which emphasizes cooperation and social bonds. Wolves rely on each other for survival, and this pack mentality has been...
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  When Has the U.S. National Guard Been Deployed? The U.S. National Guard is a reserve group organized by the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force. Every state and territory has a National Guard, which is typically called on by state governors or sitting presidents during periods of civil unrest or natural disasters. Typically, Guard units require...
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  GDP deflator: Nominal output vs. real output Suppose you tune into the financial news to hear that the economy’s gross domestic product (GDP) grew by 6.5% last quarter. Sounds like a productivity boom, right? But then you hear those same experts mention the “real GDP” figure, which fell by 1.6%. So what’s going on? The answer lies in a key...
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  Why are Some States Called Battleground States? Battleground states, also known as swing states, are those American states where both the Democratic and Republican parties have similar levels of support among voters, making electoral contests between members of different parties highly competitive. Battleground states are contrasted with...
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  Butter vs. Margarine: What’s the Difference? Butter and margarine differ primarily in their origin, composition, and nutritional content. Butter is a natural dairy product made by churning cream from cow’s milk, resulting in a solid emulsion of fat globules, water, and inorganic salts. It requires about 5 gallons (20 liters) of whole milk to...
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  List of Most Contagious Diseases Infectious diseases have played a powerful role in shaping human history and still affect lives today—from sweeping pandemics that span continents to everyday outbreaks in classrooms and communities. What makes some illnesses spread like wildfire while others fizzle out? A key factor is the basic...
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  Wirtschaftswunder Wirtschaftswunder, German for “economic miracle,” referring to the swift and dramatic improvement in the western German economy between 1948 and the 1960s. By the end of World War II the German economy had been devastated by bombing and other effects of the war. Food production was half what it had...
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  The liquefied natural gas (LNG) market: From regional to global commodity Liquefied natural gas, or LNG, has transformed natural gas from a regional to a global commodity. With that shift, investment in LNG stocks has surged. Natural gas, which is primarily methane, is most often transported in its gaseous form by pipeline, which has previously limited distribution to...
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  How Was the Statue of Liberty Built? The Statue of Liberty was constructed in France between 1875 and 1884 under the supervision of sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, who began drafting designs in 1870. He and his team hammered 31 tons of copper sheets—each about 0.1 inches (2.4-mm) thick—into shape and assembled them over a...
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  How Was the Statue of Liberty Transported? The Statue of Liberty was transported from France to the United States aboard the French frigate Isère. The colossal statue, standing at 151 feet (46 meters) and weighing 225 tons (204 metric tons), was first constructed in France between 1875 and 1884 under the supervision of sculptor...
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  What’s the Difference Between Urban and Rural? The primary difference between areas defined as urban (Latin: urbanus, “related to the city”) and rural (Latin: ruralis, “belonging to the countryside”) lies in their population density and, often, the nature of their economic activities. Urban areas are characterized by high population density...
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  Sarah Nurse Sarah Nurse is a professional Canadian ice hockey forward who plays in the Professional Women’s Hockey League (PWHL). She was a member of the Toronto Sceptres (2024–25) and joined a new expansion team in Vancouver starting with the 2025–26 season. Nurse has also been a leading member of her...
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  How Tall Are Giraffes? Giraffes are the tallest land animals. Males (bulls) may exceed 5.5 meters (18 feet) in height, and females (cows) are about 4.5 meters (15 feet) tall. A bull’s height is comparable to a two-story building, while a cow is equivalent to about a one-and-a-half-story building. Despite being slightly...
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  What Do Giraffes Eat? Giraffes, as browsers, primarily feed on new, tender shoots and leaves of trees, with a particular fondness for the thorny acacia tree. They use their long necks to browse foliage that is as high as 6 meters (20 feet) off the ground. This ability to reach tall branches gives them access to food...
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  Frida Escobedo Frida Escobedo is a Mexican architect whose experimental, multidisciplinary approach to architectural design has earned her a global reputation and appointments to high-profile projects including the 2018 Serpentine Pavilion in London and a new wing of the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York...
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  How Do Earthquakes Occur? Earthquakes occur due to the sudden release of stored energy in Earth’s crust, primarily caused by tectonic movements. Earth’s crust is divided into several large and small tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. These plates are constantly moving, albeit very...
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  Why Do Cats Like Scratching Posts? Cats are naturally inclined to use scratching posts because it fulfills several instinctual needs and behaviors. In the wild, cats scratch trees and other surfaces to mark their territory—not just visually but also through scent. The scent glands on the underside of their paws leave behind their...
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  Jerusalem cross Jerusalem cross, symbol in Christianity that has been used since the late Middle Ages (c. the 11th century) and is closely associated with the Crusades. The symbol consists of a large central cross, each of whose equal-length arms ends in a bar perpendicular to the arm (forming a cross potent: ☩),...
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  How Does a Hybrid Car Work? Hybrid cars combine two power sources, an internal-combustion engine and an electric motor, to boost fuel efficiency and cut emissions. Unlike conventional vehicles that rely solely on gasoline, hybrids seamlessly switch between or blend both systems depending on driving conditions. At low speeds...
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  How Was the Thirteenth Amendment Enforced in the South? The enforcement of the Thirteenth Amendment in the South was a complex and multifaceted process that involved significant legal, political, and social challenges. Ratified in December 1865, six months after the end of the American Civil War, the amendment abolished slavery in the United States....
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  Paul Skenes Paul Skenes is a star baseball pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates, with a fastball that exceeds 100 mph (160 km/hr) and a “splinker” pitch that befuddles hitters. In 2024 he became the fifth rookie pitcher to start an All-Star Game. At 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 meters) and 260 pounds (118 kg), he is...
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  Parkland High School Shooting At 2:21 pm on February 14, 2018, a former student entered Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida, and began firing an AR-15-style assault rifle. When the shooting stopped some six minutes later, 17 people lay dead or dying. Another 17 were injured in what is the deadliest mass...
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  David Hogg As a kid, David Hogg struggled with ADHD and dyslexia. When he was in fifth grade, his father was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease. During his freshman year in high school, his family moved from California to Florida because of his dad’s disability to be closer to family. That’s a lot of...
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  Why are Higher Elevations Colder? Higher elevations are colder primarily due to the decrease in atmospheric pressure that results from the expansion of air as it rises. The concept of adiabatic cooling, a process where cooling occurs without air transferring heat to its surroundings, is crucial in understanding why higher...
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  Why Are Mosquitoes Attracted to Certain People? Mosquitoes that feed on human blood are attracted to certain people more than others due to a combination of factors related to body chemistry, metabolism, and environmental cues. A key factor is the chemical composition of an individual’s sweat. The lactic acid in sweat is particularly attractive...
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  What Was Albert Einstein’s IQ? Unfortunately, Albert Einstein’s IQ is unknown. There is no evidence that he ever took an IQ test. However, that has not stopped some people from trying to determine how smart he was. According to some sources, Einstein’s IQ was probably about 160, which is commonly considered genius level. This...
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  Family Guy Family Guy, American animated situation comedy created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Premiering on January 31, 1999, it rapidly gained a reputation for its provocative humor and irreverent treatment of American culture and family life. Alongside The Simpsons and South Park,...
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  Timeline of World War II The deadliest conflict in human history lasted almost exactly six years, beginning with Germany’s invasion of Poland and concluding on the deck of the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. Between 40 million and 50 million people died as a result of World War II, and the balance of global power shifted...
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  How Does a Laser Work? A laser works by stimulating atoms or molecules to emit light at specific wavelengths and amplifying that light to produce a narrow beam of radiation. This process of stimulated emission works by imparting energy to atoms or molecules. These particles do not stay in these higher-energy, or excited,...
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  Why Do People Blush? People blush mainly in response to emotions such as embarrassment, shame, or confusion. When someone feels these emotions, the body reacts by sending more blood to the face, which causes the cheeks to turn red. This physiological response is induced by the body’s sympathetic nervous system, which...
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  How Fast Are Cheetahs? Cheetahs are capable of reaching speeds of up to 114 km (71 miles) per hour, making them the fastest land animals. However, they can maintain such speeds for short distances only. They can accelerate from 0 to 96.5 km (60 miles) per hour in less than three seconds. This rapid acceleration is...
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  Are Sponges Considered Animals? Yes, sponges are indeed considered animals, despite their plant-like appearance and lack of obvious movement. They belong to the phylum Porifera, which is a group of primitive multicellular aquatic animals. This classification is based on their cellular structures and biological functions, which...
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  Val Kilmer Val Kilmer was an American actor known for his charisma and unpredictability, which he used to great effect in a wide range of film roles. He first gained fame for his portrayal of Iceman in Top Gun (1986) and then appeared in such iconic roles as Jim Morrison in Oliver Stone’s biopic The Doors...
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  How Far Is the Sun from Earth? The Sun is approximately 149.6 million km (about 92.96 million miles) away from Earth. This distance is often expressed as an astronomical unit (AU; 1 AU = 149.6 million km), which is a standard unit of measurement in astronomy that allows for quick comparison of distances of planets, stars, and...
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  Brihadishvara Temple Brihadishvara Temple, massive and majestic temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva, located in the city of Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu, southeastern India. This architecturally significant temple was constructed under the patronage of the Chola emperor Rajaraja I between 1003 and 1010 ce and is among...
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  Mau Mau Rebellion Mau Mau Rebellion, conflict that raged in Britain’s Kenya colony from 1952 to 1960. It was fought by the Mau Mau, a militant Kenyan nationalist group comprising mostly fighters from the Kikuyu (one of the colony’s main ethnic groups) and some from other groups, such as the Embu and Meru. They...
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  Why Is Root Beer Called Root Beer? Root beer is a popular sweet, carbonated beverage that contains no alcohol. It is called “root beer,” however, because its original formulation was derived from roots and herbs, and the name was chosen to appeal to a specific customer. The primary ingredients in early recipes of the drink included...
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  Critically Endangered Tortoises Born at Philadelphia Zoo ProCon Debate: Should Zoos Exist? ProCon Issue in the News: Two centenarian Western Santa Cruz Galapagos tortoises, Mommy and Abrazzo, have become parents at the Philadelphia Zoo. Part of the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Species Survival Plan (SSP), Mommy arrived at the Philadelphia Zoo...
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  Smoke Signals Smoke Signals, American coming-of-age comedy-drama film, released in 1998, that was directed by Chris Eyre and was the first feature film written, directed, and coproduced by Native Americans. Its screenplay was adapted by author Sherman Alexie from his short story “This Is What It Means to Say...
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  Tom Holland Tom Holland is an English actor who began performing on the stage as a child before becoming a popular movie star in the early 21st century for his portrayal of Spider-Man in multiple Hollywood blockbuster films. Holland is the eldest of four children born to Nicola and Dominic Holland. His mother...
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  How Long Was the Voyage of the Mayflower? The voyage of the Mayflower lasted 66 days. The square-rigged sailing ship embarked from Plymouth, England, on September 16, 1620, and made landfall on Cape Cod at what is now Provincetown, Massachusetts, on November 21, 1620. The Mayflower initially left England on August 15 in the company of the...
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  Why Is Romeo and Juliet So Popular? The popularity of William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet can be attributed to its timeless exploration of young love, family conflict, and tragic fate, making it a universal story that resonates across generations. At the heart of Romeo and Juliet is the intense and immediate love between two young...
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  Why Are People from the Netherlands Called Dutch? The term Dutch predates the Netherlands. It originates from the Middle Ages when the language spoken by the common people in the region was referred to as Dietsc or Duutsc (“of the people, popular”). This was in contrast to the language of education and government, Latin, which was used in formal...
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  Why Do Cats Clean Themselves So Much? Cats clean themselves frequently because of a combination of health benefits and social behaviors. Cats are meticulous groomers. They can spend up to 50 percent of their waking hours cleaning themselves with their tongues, which have barb-like spines. By grooming, cats remove dirt, dust, dead skin...
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  Why Do Cats Blink Slowly? Cats blink slowly as a form of nonverbal communication, often interpreted as a sign of trust and affection toward humans or other animals. Cats are naturally cautious creatures, and in the wild they need to be alert to potential threats. So when they close their eyes, even momentarily, it shows...
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  Why Do Cats Have Slit Pupils? Cats have slit pupils primarily to enhance their ability to see in varying light conditions. They are crepuscular creatures, meaning they are most active during dawn and dusk. This crucial adaptation helps them to explore in low-light environments. The pupils of the eyes expand or contract...
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  How Is Marble Formed? Marble is formed when limestone or dolomite (rocks composed of calcium magnesium carbonate) recrystallizes under the influence of intense heat, pressure, and chemical changes involving aqueous solutions, a process called metamorphism. This recrystallization produces a denser rock and gives marble...
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  How Big Was a Saber-Toothed Tiger? The saber-toothed tiger, the popular name for a genus of extinct prehistoric cats known as Smilodon, was about the size of a modern African lion. The most famous of the saber-toothed cats, Smilodon was a large, short-limbed predator that inhabited North and South America during the Pleistocene...
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  How Big Was the Woolly Mammoth? The woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was a massive creature, standing about 3 to 3.7 meters (about 10 to 12 feet) tall. Its towering stature was complemented by its hefty weight, which ranged between 5,500 and 7,300 kg (approximately 6 to 8 tons). Such dimensions make the woolly mammoth...
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  How Far Is the Moon From Earth? The Moon is approximately 384,000 km (238,600 miles) away from Earth, on average. The Moon orbits Earth in an elliptical pattern, which means that it is closer to Earth at some points and farther away at other points. When the Moon is at its farthest point from Earth, known as its apogee, it can be...
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  Are Sand Dollars Alive? Sand dollars are indeed alive. They are fascinating marine invertebrates that make up the order Clypeastroida (a group of echinoderms in class Echinoidea). Sand dollars are closely related to sea urchins and heart urchins, with which they share a similar flat, disk-shaped body structure and radial...
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  How Cold Does It Get in Antarctica? Antarctica holds the record for the lowest temperature ever recorded on Earth. At Vostok Station, a Russian research installation located above Lake Vostok on the continent’s high inland ice sheet, the temperature dropped to a record-breaking low of −128.6 °F (−89.2 °C) on July 21, 1983. During the...
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  What Do Frogs Eat? Frogs have a diverse diet that primarily consists of insects and other small invertebrates, though some species also consume larger prey. As insectivores, most frogs feed on a wide array of bugs such as flies, mosquitoes, and beetles, using their long, sticky tongues to snatch fast-moving prey with...
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  Shane Mosley Shane Mosley is an American former professional boxer who was among the most dominant lightweight fighters of the 1990s, going undefeated in 33 bouts. Known for his aggressive attacking style and exceptional reflexes, he later moved up weight classes and won championship belts as a welterweight and...
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  What Does the Secretary of State Do? The secretary of state is the head of the U.S. Department of State, responsible for managing the country’s foreign affairs and relations with other nations. The role is often called being the nation’s chief diplomat. The secretary of state plays a crucial role in shaping and implementing U.S....
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  the Sorbonne The Sorbonne, term that may refer to the theological college founded by Robert de Sorbon, the University of Paris as a whole, or Sorbonne University (French: Sorbonne Université), established in 2018 by the merger of Paris-Sorbonne University (Paris IV) and Pierre and Marie Curie University (UPMC;...
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  General Order No. 3 On June 19, 1865, Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger and a contingent of some 2,000 Union troops entered Galveston, Texas, to deliver General Order No. 3, a proclamation to alert the enslaved Black residents of the state that they were free. Juneteenth (a combination of the words June and nineteenth) arose...
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  Decolonization of Africa By the early 20th century about 90 percent of African territory had been incorporated into one European empire or another (with the exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia). Though this colonization of Africa spanned several centuries, the bulk of it occurred in the last quarter of the 19th century...
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  tube feeding Tube feeding, method of delivering nutrients directly into the stomach or small intestine through a flexible tube. Tube feeding is commonly used for patients who are comatose, are undernourished or have a severely decreased appetite, or are affected by an injury, disorder, or illness that renders...
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  Why Do Jews Put Stones On Graves? Jews place stones on graves of the dead as a sign of respect and remembrance for the people buried below. In Judaism placing stones on graves serves as a symbol of the lasting memory and enduring presence of the deceased in the lives of their loved ones. The stones also indicate that a grave has...
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  How Did the Gilded Age Get Its Name? The Gilded Age takes its name from the novel The Gilded Age, written by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner and published in 1873. The title was a provocation: the word gilded describes something covered in a thin layer of gold, shiny on the outside but, perhaps, cheap or rotten underneath. That’s...
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  How Was Buddhism Spread? Buddhism began in northeastern India in the kingdoms of Magadha and Kosala. The followers of the Buddha began as a community of monks, nuns, and the accompanying laity in northern and central India. Buddhism spread from those beginnings through a combination of missionary work, trade routes, and...
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  Why Are Amazon River Dolphins Pink? Amazon river dolphins, also known as botos, are often pink due to a combination of factors, including their diet, environmental conditions, and unique biological characteristics. Their coloration is partly influenced by the murky, sediment-rich waters of the Amazon and Orinoco river basins, which...
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  What Would Happen if Earth Stopped Rotating? If Earth were to suddenly stop rotating, the consequences would be catastrophic and far-reaching, affecting everything from the planet’s physical structure to its climate and ecosystems. The immediate effect would be the cessation of the centrifugal force that acts on the planet’s surface. This...
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  How Big Is the Sun? The Sun’s radius is a staggering 109 times greater than Earth’s, making it a truly massive presence in our solar system. This immense size is complemented by its mass, which is 330,000 times that of Earth and 743 times the total mass of all the planets in the solar system. The Sun’s mass is so...
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  Are Viruses Living or Nonliving? Viruses are not considered living organisms in the traditional sense. Viruses are unique infectious agents that can only multiply within the living cells of animals, plants, or bacteria. They are not free-living entities and cannot reproduce or carry out metabolic processes without a host cell....
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  The Marriage of the Virgin The Marriage of the Virgin, oil painting, also known as Lo Sposalizio, that was created in 1504 by Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. It was commissioned by the Albizzini family for a church in the Città del Castello outside Perugia, home to a ring believed to be that given to Mary by Joseph when...
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  How Was the Liberty Bell Cracked? The Liberty Bell—a well-known symbol of freedom, originally commissioned by the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly in 1751—has cracked multiple times during its history. The bell’s first crack happened almost immediately after its arrival in Philadelphia. Cast in London and delivered in 1752, the...
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  How Big Is the Moon? The Moon is a spherical rocky body with a mean equatorial radius of approximately 1,738 kilometers (1,080 miles) and a diameter of roughly 3,476 kilometers (2,160 miles). In terms of mass, the Moon is relatively massive for a natural satellite, with a mass ratio compared to Earth that is larger...
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  Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?) Portrait of a Man (Self Portrait?), small oil painting on wood that was created in 1433 by Netherlandish artist Jan van Eyck. The portait, also known as Man in a Red Turban, is widely believed to depict the artist himself. Though he did not, as was long held to be true, invent oil painting, Jan...
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  L’Absinthe L’Absinthe, oil painting created by French Impressionist artist Edgar Degas in 1875–76. Its shocking subject, a glimpse of real, modern life, initially met with a decidedly mixed reception. Originally called Dans un Café, it was first shown at an Impressionist exhibition in 1876, and it acquired...
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  Regret minimization theory: Making peace with uncertainty Regret minimization theory is a decision-making framework that helps traders and investors navigate choices when faced with uncertainty. At its heart is a simple question: Which choice will I regret least? Instead of aiming for the best financial outcome, this approach shifts the goal to reducing...
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  Carried interest and the tax loophole: Here’s how it works When it comes to controversial tax topics, carried interest and the carried interest tax loophole carry some baggage, and then some. As a concept, carried interest dates back centuries, but it’s only in the past three decades or so that it has earned its “loophole” tag in the U.S., as its use...
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  Why Is New York Called the Empire State? New York is called the “Empire State” due to its historical significance, economic power, and cultural influence. The nickname is often attributed to a 1785 letter written by George Washington, in which he praised New York for its strength during the American Revolution and referred to it as “the...
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  Latte vs. Cappuccino: What’s the Difference? The primary difference between a latte and a cappuccino lies in their composition and texture. A cappuccino is crafted with equal parts espresso, steamed milk, and frothed milk, creating a drink with a distinct layered structure. The foam is typically spooned onto the drink in dollops, giving it a...
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  Lee Jae-Myung Lee Jae-Myung is the president of South Korea (2025– ), representing the left-leaning Democratic Party of Korea (DPK). He rose to power following the impeachment of Pres. Yoon Suk-Yeol, whose abrupt declaration of martial law in late 2024 plunged the country into political turmoil. Lee won the...
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  What to know about having a new home built Building a house lets you create a home tailored to your needs, from selecting the floor plan to choosing the finishes. For some homebuyers, that kind of personalization is worth the months construction takes. For others, the time, cost, and possible delays make buying an existing home more...
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  Why Do We Celebrate Juneteenth? Juneteenth (also known as Emancipation Day, Freedom Day, and Jubilee Day) commemorates the end of slavery in the United States. It marks the anniversary of June 19, 1865, the day when Union soldiers arrived in Galveston, Texas, and informed the enslaved population of their freedom—more than two...
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  Who Is Yasser Abu Shabab? In the context of the Israel-Hamas War and the Gaza Strip, Yasser Abu Shabab is the leader of a Palestinian militia based in Rafah in the southern Gaza Strip whose core members belong to a clan within the Tarabin Bedouin tribe, primarily known for its prominent trade network in the Sinai Peninsula...
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  Gwadar port Gwadar port, deep-sea port in Pakistan at the terminal point of the bilateral China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) infrastructure program. Gwadar port’s importance lies in its strategic location for maritime commerce and naval activity. The coastal town Gwadar, in Pakistan’s western province...
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  pepperoni Pepperoni, a beef and pork blend, cured with various spices and then smoked or air-dried. Because of this specific method of preparation, pepperoni is a type of salami. However, pepperoni differs from traditional salami because of its fine-grained texture, distinctive spicy flavor (a result of...
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  How Was Alcohol Discovered? The origin of alcoholic beverages is shrouded in the mists of prehistory, but it is believed that fermentation occurred naturally when yeasts in the air acted on mashed sugar-rich foods such as grapes, grains, and honey. This accidental process likely led early peoples to discover alcohol, as they...
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  Tituba Tituba was the first person to be accused of witchcraft during the 1692 Salem witch trials. An enslaved Indigenous American woman, she was questioned about her involvement alongside two other women, who were social outcasts in the village. Under duress, Tituba confessed to making a pact with the...
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  How Long Does It Take Food to Digest? The process of food digestion typically takes between 24 and 72 hours. The precise length of time is determined primarily by the type of food consumed and individual digestive health. Digestion begins in the mouth, where food is chewed and mixed with saliva. Saliva contains enzymes that initiate...
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  Bernadette Peters Bernadette Peters is a prolific and award-winning American singer, actress, and author who has starred in Broadway musicals and on-screen for more than five decades. Often referred to as “The Queen of Broadway” for her dazzling vocals, sultry charisma, and humor, Peters is widely regarded as the...
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  freestyle chess Freestyle chess, variation of chess in which the pieces on the first and eighth rank are placed randomly with two conditions. The pawns are placed in their usual positions on the second and seventh ranks. As in regular, or classical, chess, the black pieces are set up to mirror the white pieces;...
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  How Old Was Anne Frank When She Wrote Her Diary? Anne Frank received her red-and-white plaid diary as a gift on her 13th birthday on June 12, 1942, and began writing in it that day. The diary became her confidant, a place where she could express her innermost thoughts and feelings during a time of immense uncertainty and fear: Anne, who was...
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  List of Albums that Turn 50 in 2025 The year 1975 delivered a wave of groundbreaking music—a sonic explosion that rewrote the rules of rock, pop, and everything in between. From electrifying guitar solos to soulful anthems and genre-bending experiments, artists were pushing boundaries and setting new standards. It was a year when...
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  How Was Pizza Invented? Pizza, as we know it today, originated centuries ago in Naples, Italy. where it was crafted as a humble dish for the working class. The classic Neapolitan pizza, known as pizza Margherita, was a thin layer of dough adorned with tomato sauce, mozzarella cheese, and basil. This combination not only...
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  How Do You Dispose of an American Flag? When an American flag becomes worn, tattered, or otherwise unserviceable, it should be retired with respect. The traditional method is to burn the flag in a dignified ceremony. This practice is not just about disposal; it’s a way to honor the flag’s symbolism and the values it represents. Many...
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  Why Do Cats Like Boxes? Cats are drawn to boxes primarily because these enclosed spaces offer a sense of safety and comfort. By nature cats seek out small, confined spaces where they can hide from potential threats. This behavior stems from their instincts shaped in the wild, where staying out of sight helps them avoid...
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  2024 Presidential Election ARCHIVED TOPIC: This topic was archived on Nov. 6, 2024, and will no longer be updated. Presidential candidates tracked by ProCon must: When a candidate officially drops out of the race, we will no longer add information about them to the site. As the election proceeds, the criteria may change to...
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  How Cold Was the Water When the Titanic Sank? On the night of April 14–15, 1912, the Titanic sank into the frigid waters of the North Atlantic. Some 1,500 people perished, and for most of the victims, the cause of death was hypothermia, not drowning. The water temperature was approximately 28 ℉ (−2 ℃), which is below the freezing point of...
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  What Do Whales Eat? Whales have a diverse diet that varies significantly between species, primarily depending on whether they are baleen or toothed whales. Baleen whales, such as the blue whale and humpback whale, are filter feeders. They take in large mouthfuls of water and then use their baleen plates to trap small...
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  Why Do Dogs Eat Grass? Dogs eat grass for several reasons, and while the exact motivations can vary, there are a few common theories that help explain this behavior. One reason dogs might munch on grass is to fulfill certain nutritional needs. Dogs are known to eat a variety of foods, and when their diet lacks certain...
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  Sanjay Gandhi Sanjay Gandhi was an Indian politician and a member of the Indian parliament. He was widely viewed as the heir apparent to his mother, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi (1966–77 and 1980–84). He was known for his controversial role in government, particularly during the Emergency (June 1975–March 1977)....
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  Why Is the Huang He River Known as China’s Sorrow? The Huang He, also known as the Yellow River, is often referred to as “China’s Sorrow” due to its long history of devastating floods. The river’s lower reaches, particularly across the North China Plain, are prone to overflowing because of the heavy silt load. Since the 2nd century bce, the Huang...
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  John Swinney John Swinney is a veteran pro-independence Scottish politician who became first minister of Scotland in May 2024, after a period marked by scandal and turbulence in the government. Swinney has been an at times controversial fixture of Scottish politics for virtually all of the 21st century. Swinney...
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  How Was the Great Wall of China Made? The Great Wall of China was constructed using a variety of materials and techniques, evolving over centuries to become the monumental structure we recognize today. From the 7th through 4th century bce, states like Chu and Qi constructed walls to defend themselves from their rival states. After his...
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  divide and rule Divide and rule, from the Latin divide et impera, a strategy of governing colonial societies by systematically separating social and cultural groups, partly because those groups may otherwise unite and overpower the colonizing power. The term is often used in the context of colonial government in...
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  Why Is It Illegal to Touch a Manatee? Touching a manatee is illegal in the United States. The ban’s aim is to protect these vulnerable marine mammals from harm and stress caused by human interaction. The Florida manatee, a subspecies of the West Indian manatee, is safeguarded under the Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Endangered...
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  How Many Pints of Blood Does a Human Have? A typical adult human has approximately 8 to 12 pints (about 4.5 to 6.8 liters) of blood circulating through their body. This is equivalent to roughly 7–8 percent of total body weight. Blood volume, however, varies according to factors such as age, sex, weight, and body type. In women, for example,...
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  Do Snakes Sleep? Snakes do sleep, but their sleep patterns are significantly different from those of mammals and birds. Snakes, as cold-blooded reptiles, have a unique manner of sleeping that is not as easily observable as in warm-blooded animals. Unlike mammals, snakes do not have eyelids, so they cannot close...
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  Rapid Support Forces Rapid Support Forces (RSF), Darfur-based paramilitary group in Sudan. The RSF was established in 2013 by the government to fight Sudanese rebels. After defeating those forces, the group grew into such a powerful and integral component of Sudan’s defenses that it came to challenge Sudan’s official...
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  How Deep Is the Titanic Wreck? The wreck of the Titanic lies approximately 12,500 feet (3,810 meters)—or 2.4 miles (3.9 km)—beneath the surface of the Atlantic Ocean. The extreme depth made discovering the ocean liner difficult. Within days of the Titanic’s sinking in 1912, talk began of finding the wreck. However, it was not...
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  How Was Anne Frank Discovered? Anne Frank and her family were discovered after Dutch informers tipped off the Gestapo, who raided the family’s hiding place on August 4, 1944. The Frank family, along with four other Jewish individuals, had been hiding in a “secret annex” (concealed section) of Otto Frank’s business premises in...
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  How Was Stonehenge Built? Stonehenge was constructed over six stages between 3000 and 1520 bce using a sophisticated post-and-lintel system, with massive stones transported from distant locations and arranged in a precise circular formation. The initial phase of the construction of Stonehenge (located on Salisbury Plain,...
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  Why Are Boxer Dogs Called Boxers? The name Boxer is derived from the dog’s unique behavior during play and combat, which is reminiscent of a human boxer. When engaging with other dogs or even humans, Boxers are known to stand on their hind legs and use their front paws to “box” their opponent—much like a human boxer in a ring. The...
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  How Much Was the Louisiana Purchase? The Louisiana Purchase transferred control of the Louisiana Territory—a vast land area extending from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and from the Gulf of Mexico to the British North American colonies (Canada)—from France to the United States in 1803. In return for the territory, the...
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  Which Ocean Is Deeper: The Atlantic or the Pacific? The Pacific Ocean is deeper than the Atlantic Ocean, both in terms of average depth and deepest point. The Pacific Ocean has a mean depth of approximately 14,040 feet (4,280 meters), and it boasts the deepest known point in the world’s oceans, the Challenger Deep, located in the Mariana Trench,...
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  How Fast Was the Concorde Jet? The Concorde jet could reach a maximum cruising speed of 2,179 km (1,354 miles) per hour, or Mach 2.04 (more than twice the speed of sound). This supersonic speed allowed it to significantly reduce travel time, making it possible to fly from London to New York City in about three hours. By...
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  Do Whales Sleep? Whales do sleep, but their sleep is quite different from what we typically understand as sleep in humans. Whales, like all cetaceans, have a unique way of sleeping that allows them to remain conscious enough to breathe. Unlike humans, who breathe automatically even while unconscious, whales must...
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  How Big Is Saturn? Saturn is a colossal planet, with an equatorial diameter of 120,536 kilometers (74,898 miles). Saturn is the second-largest planet in the solar system, only surpassed by Jupiter. Despite its massive size, Saturn is surprisingly light for its volume. It occupies almost 60 percent of Jupiter’s volume...
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  How Does a Polygraph Test Work? A polygraph test works by measuring someone’s physiological responses, which are believed to change when a person is lying. The polygraph, often referred to as a lie detector, is an instrument that records phenomena such as blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiratory rate. These physiological...
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  How Rich Was Pablo Escobar? Pablo Escobar was one of the wealthiest individuals in the world during his time, with an estimated net worth of around $25 billion. Escobar’s wealth was primarily amassed through his leadership of the Medellín cartel, which dominated the cocaine trade in the 1980s. At its peak, the cartel was...
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  Tate Modern Tate Modern, museum in London that houses a collection of modern and contemporary art from around the world. It is located close to Bankside Pier near Southwark. The museum has a curatorial system in which the art is exhibited by theme rather than by time period or original location. Tate Modern,...
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  Why Is Paris Called the City of Light? There are a number of different explanations for Paris being called the “City of Light” (“la Ville Lumière”). One reason is for Paris’s historical significance as a center for education and intellectual pursuits, particularly during the Enlightenment (17th and 18th centuries). This era was marked...
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  Queen Mary of Denmark Queen Mary of Denmark is the queen of Denmark and the wife of King Frederik X. She was born and grew up in Australia before becoming a princess through her marriage to Frederik André Henrik Christian, then the Crown Prince of Denmark, in May 2004. She became the world’s first Australian-born queen...
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  What Is the Difference Between Silk and Satin? The terms silk and satin are often used to describe fabrics, and though the fabrics can be distinct from one another, they can also be related. That is because the terms refer to two different things. Silk fabric is named for the material it is made from—silk, a natural protein fiber produced by...
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  Why Is Charlotte, North Carolina, Called the Queen City? Charlotte, North Carolina, is called the Queen City because it was named for Queen Charlotte, the wife of King George III of Great Britain. The city’s name was the residents’ second attempt to find favor with the king by honoring Charlotte with a place-name. George became king in 1760, and in 1761...
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  Connor McDavid Connor McDavid is widely considered one of the greatest National Hockey League (NHL) players of his generation. Known for his exceptional speed, vision, and playmaking abilities, McDavid was a first-round draft pick of the Edmonton Oilers in 2015 and became the team’s captain the next year. He has...
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  Emancipation Park, Juneteenth, and a Recommitment to Freedom “Emancipation Park is Juneteenth.” That’s what Ramon Manning, chair of the Emancipation Park Conservancy, told me on a lazy Sunday afternoon in May 2025 at the 10-acre park in Houston’s Third Ward, a historic Black neighborhood. Juneteenth is America’s youngest national holiday. It celebrates the...
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  Andy Kim Andy Kim is the first Korean American elected to the United States Senate. A Democrat from New Jersey, he waged an uphill battle in 2024 for the Senate seat, taking on the state’s first lady and the Democratic Party’s political machine in the primary, before winning the general election over...
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  How Big Is Pluto? Pluto’s diameter, 2,370 km (1,473 miles), is less than half that of Mercury (4,880 km [3,032 miles]) and only about two-thirds the size of Earth’s Moon (3,474 km [2,159 miles]. Pluto is thus significantly smaller than any of the planets in the solar system and more comparable in size to some of the...
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  Tyrese Haliburton Tyrese Haliburton is an American basketball player who in 2025 led the Indiana Pacers to the NBA Finals, where the team lost to the Oklahoma City Thunder. A 6-foot 5-inch (1.96-meter) point guard, he is known for playing the game at a frenetic pace and for being an expert, selfless passer, earning...
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  Midjourney Midjourney, generative artificial intelligence (AI) tool that creates images from user-generated text prompts. It can produce images in a photorealistic, painterly, cinematic, or surrealistic style. Midjourney, Inc., was founded in San Francisco in August 2021 by entrepreneur David Holz, who had...
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  How Long Does a Patent Last? A patent typically lasts 20 years from the filing date of the application. This standard duration is common around the world, providing inventors with time to benefit from their creations before they enter the public domain. The two-decade term aims to balance inventors’ rights with the broader...
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  Does Perfume Expire? Yes, perfume can indeed expire. Perfumes are complex mixtures of various ingredients, including essential oils, alcohol, and other compounds. Over time, these components can break down, leading to changes in the fragrance. The alcohol in perfumes (known as ethyl alcohol, or ethanol) acts as a...
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  What Happens if the President Dies? If the president of the United States dies, the vice president immediately assumes the office of president. The Twenty-fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1967, clearly outlines the process of presidential succession, codifying what had been a traditional practice. The amendment...
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  How Many Eyes Does a Spider Have? Spiders typically have eight eyes, although some species may have fewer. The number and arrangement of eyes can be a distinguishing feature among different spider families. For example, the jumping spiders of family Salticidae have incredible eyesight and can perceive the full spectrum of color and...
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  How Big Is Jupiter? Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system, with an equatorial diameter of about 143,000 kilometers (88,900 miles), which is more than 11 times the diameter of Earth. The planet’s sheer volume and mass are so great that it could contain all the other planets in the solar system combined....
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  Delaware Legalizes Medical Aid in Dying ProCon Debate: Should Medical Aid in Dying Be Legal? ProCon Issue in the News: On May 20, 2025, Delaware became the 12th U.S. jurisdiction to legalize medical aid in dying (MAID), also called death with dignity, physician-assisted suicide, and assisted suicide. Gov. Matt Meyer stated, “We’re...
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  Monk by the Sea Monk by the Sea, painting in oil on canvas created by German artist Caspar David Friedrich between 1808 and 1810. Its depiction of a man dwarfed by the starkness and magnitude of nature captures the loneliness of the human condition and the mystery and enormity of the surrounding universe. For most...
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  Chicxulub crater Chicxulub crater, impact crater located off the Yucatán Peninsula of present-day Mexico. It is named for the nearby town of Chicxulub Puerto. The 180-km- (110-mile-) wide crater was formed by an asteroid impact about 66 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous Period. The impact and resulting...
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  eruv Eruv, in Judaism, a demarcated boundary that permits Jews to carry or push objects outside of the home when observing the Sabbath (Hebrew: Shabbat, from shavat, “cease,” or “desist”). Within an eruv, which is typically made of string and wire and constructed around a neighborhood, Jews observing...
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  Hailee Steinfeld Hailee Steinfeld is an American actress who was nominated for an Oscar for best supporting actress as a 14-year-old for her commanding debut performance as the fast-talking Mattie Ross in the Coen brothers’ western True Grit (2010). She has since appeared in a diverse array of movies and television...
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  Rashid Johnson Rashid Johnson is an American multimedia artist whose work explores the anxieties of the modern world, intellectual and artistic lineages, and the African American experience. Early in his career Johnson was acclaimed for his portrait photography, which was at times laced with slyly humorous social...
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  Why Is Chicago Called the “Second City”? Chicago is called the “Second City” due to a combination of historical and cultural factors, primarily stemming from its rivalry with New York City and the name of a book by A.J. Liebling, who coined the term in the 1950s. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Chicago was in fierce competition...
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  Why Do Dogs Wag Their Tails? Dogs wag their tails primarily as a form of communication, allowing them to express a range of emotions. Tail wagging in dogs is a complex behavior that allows them to convey happiness, excitement, or even nervousness to other dogs or humans. The nature of the emotion can often be determined by the...
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  Why Are Maine Coon Cats So Big? Maine Coons are one of the largest domestic cat breeds and North America’s only native breed of longhaired domestic cat. Although their origins are unknown, they were first shown in Boston in the 1870s. Weighing up to 22 pounds (10 kg), Maine Coons are muscular and heavy-boned and may have been...
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  Artificial Intelligence Act Artificial Intelligence Act (AI Act), European Union (EU) legislation that seeks to improve EU citizens’ experience, privacy, and safety when using artificial intelligence (AI). The act places limitations on corporations and other entities that use AI in sharing or gathering information, and it...
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  Why Are Black Cats Unlucky? Black cats are considered unlucky in some cultures because of superstitious beliefs that have been passed down over time. These beliefs were especially prevalent in Europe and the Americas between the 14th and 18th centuries, when black cats were often implicated in witchcraft activities during...
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  Warner Music Group Warner Music Group (WMG) is an American multinational music and entertainment company headquartered in New York City. It was founded by Warner Bros. film studios in 1958 as a strategic hedge to prevent its artists from recording with rival labels. Over the decades, WMG rapidly became one of the...
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  Kemalism Kemalism, the political, economic, and social principles advocated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and designed to create a modern republican secular Turkish state out of a portion of the Ottoman Empire. Mustafa Kemal’s guiding principle in setting out the early policy agenda of Turkey (Türkiye) was the...
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  Dharmendra Dharmendra is a veteran Indian actor known for his work in Bollywood. Especially noted for his powerful dialogue delivery and ability to portray a wide range of characters, Dharmendra was counted among Bollywood’s reigning stars in the 1960s and ’70s. He is a recipient of the Padma Bhushan (2012),...
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  adult contemporary music Adult contemporary music, a style of music that blends elements of pop with soft rock, folk rock, smooth soul, and other genres such as jazz, country, and rhythm and blues (R&B). A popular radio format, adult contemporary music is known for its easy-flowing rhythms, gentle instrumentation, vocal...
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  How Long Was the Ice Age? The most recent major ice age, known as the Great Ice Age or Pleistocene Epoch, spanned approximately 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago. Extensive ice sheets and glaciers formed and retreated in a series of glacial and interglacial cycles during this epoch, shaping much of the Earth’s surface as we...
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  How Long Was Odysseus Gone? Odysseus was gone from his kingdom of Ithaca for a total of 20 years. The first 10 years of his absence were spent fighting in the Trojan War. This legendary conflict, chronicled by Homer in the Iliad, was sparked by the seduction of the Spartan queen Helen by the Trojan prince Paris and saw...
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  Why Is It Called the Cold War? The term “Cold War” is used to describe the period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies after World War II. The Cold War was unique in that it did not involve direct military confrontation between the U.S.-led Western bloc and the...
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  Lagaan Lagaan, Bollywood film released in 2001, remarkable for its rousing depiction of anticolonial resistance by Indian villagers who humble their British overlords in a cricket match. Directed by Ashutosh Gowariker and starring Aamir Khan (also the producer), Lagaan (“Land Tax”) was nominated for the...
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  Germaine Dulac Germaine Dulac was a French filmmaker known for her impressionistic and experimental silent films, including The Smiling Madame Beudet (1923) and The Seashell and the Clergyman (1928). Dulac’s father was a brigadier general who held posts in different parts of France, and her mother entered a...